美国史研究的传承与创新:纪念历史学家丁则民诞辰百年论文集
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在《哲学与政治史》第一版问世时,英属北美13个殖民地已开始出现与英国脱离的倾向,但尚未在殖民地社会居于主流。雷纳尔肯定查阅了大量关于北美地区的图书资料,他甚至连殖民地报纸所刊登的相关花边新闻也不放过。[68]不过,雷纳尔与绝大多数欧洲精英人士一样,大概没有料想到北美地区会发生一场改变世界历史进程的革命。美国革命爆发之后,很少有欧洲人对这场革命及其意义有所了解,甚至可以说是一无所知。雷纳尔是个政治敏锐性很强的学者,他没有囿于成见,根据局势的变化开始对《哲学与政治史》进行较大修订,把美国革命发生的原因、进程及其意义展现在欧洲人的面前。从现在的眼光来看,雷纳尔对美国革命的描述非常简单,多为常识,还存在不正确之处,夹杂着个人想象的成分在内,但在当时对美国革命及其意义的认识能够达到像雷纳尔这样的深度和高度,在欧洲学者中恐怕亦为凤毛麟角。因此,雷纳尔的修订版问世之际正是美国革命在北美如火如荼进行之时,即刻受到欧洲读者的热捧,成为“革命时代法国人对美国观察之研究的起点”。[69]安萨特对雷纳尔的修订版批评甚多,但不否认在《哲学与政治史》中,“专门涉及13个殖民地和美国的章节构成了18世纪法国关于美国最具影响的描述”。[70]雷纳尔关于美国革命的部分被译为英文单独出版,译者在英译本前面的公告中对这部书评价极高,称其为“文艺复兴以来出现的最杰出的作品之一,可能是已知任何作品中最具有启发性”。这部书“讨论英国与其殖民地争执的增补内容为人们长期殷切之期待”。[71]译者为英国人,匿名译者,或许是想避免英译本出版后遭到官方的迫害。英国著名人士威廉·科贝特阅读了英译本之后,称雷纳尔对美国的描述令人耳目一新,激起了他访问这个新国家的冲动。[72]法国学者勒内列夫人(Madame Renelle)1786年出版了《新地理》(Nouvelle geographie)一书,作者在这本广泛使用的教科书中重复了“美洲退化论”,与此同时又把美国描写为繁荣、自由、平等、宗教自由、美德和启蒙之地。[73]勒内列夫人对美国的认识显然受到雷纳尔的影响。欧洲人对美洲抱有很大的偏见,这种偏见同样体现在对新独立的美国之认识上,雷纳尔的视野同样受到这种偏见的局限,但他毕竟是站在反专制主义和殖民主义的立场上来观察这场革命及其意义的,对欧洲人认识美国显然是起到积极作用,很大程度上广泛传播了美国的正面形象。因此,雷纳尔对美国革命的看法只有放到他所处的时代才能显示出重大的意义。

雷纳尔对美国革命的考察,同样有很强的现实关怀,对自由美国的称赞显然有谴责专制法国的含义,暗示法国人民要为争取自由起而与专制统治进行斗争。德国历史学家赖因哈特·克泽勒科认为,雷纳尔对美国革命的论述是对法国人民的巧妙隐蔽鼓动,要他们进行反抗,在一场反对旧世界政治镇压的跨洋道义胜利中击败旧秩序。[74]法国人很快举起了反对旧秩序的革命大旗,美国革命在其中显然扮演了“榜样”的角色,而他们中很多人对美国革命的了解正是来自雷纳尔的修订版。用美国学者安东尼·帕格登的话来说,雷纳尔这部著述“在法国大革命之前和期间广受欢迎,对革命做出非常重要的意识形态的贡献”。帕格登引用一位学者的评论说,这本书激发起读者的全新的狂热,即“自由的狂热”。[75]在很大程度上讲,雷纳尔基本上达到了他对美国革命描述的主要目的。很耐人寻味的是,法国革命爆发之后,巴黎街头血流成河,恐怖笼罩着这座具有悠久历史的城市。雷纳尔目睹了这一过程,对革命又有了新的认识,思想开始趋向保守。1791年5月31日,很少参与公众辩论的雷纳尔向国民议会提交了一篇讲演,当日向议员们宣读。在讲演中,雷纳尔出乎意外地要求加强王室权力,取缔政治俱乐部,提防民众暴政和暴力。他情绪激动,谴责了“多数人暴政”给法国带来的灾难,宣称“当我看到最为卑鄙邪恶的人被用作一场有益之革命的打手时,当我看到神圣的爱国主义之名沦落为邪恶罪行时,当我看到在自由旗帜之下胜利者狂欢游行示威时,我的眼睛充满了泪水”。[76]雷纳尔这种反对革命的态度似乎与他往日的形象背道而驰,但如果我们仔细地考察雷纳尔对美国革命的看法,这种思想转变大概也不会是出乎预料之外了。

(本文作者系福建师范大学社会历史学院教授)


[1] Dallas D.Irvine,“The Abbé Raynal and British Humanitarianism,”The Journal of Modern History,vol.3,No.4,December 1931,p.565.

[2] Bernard W.Sheehan,Seeds of Extinction:Jeffersonian Philanthropy and the American Indian,Chapel Hill:The University of North Carolina Press,1973,p.70.

[3] 参见Andrew P.Moore,French Observations of America:Intercultural Commentary in the Age of Revolution,A Dissertation of the Catholic University of America,2005,p.80;Henry T.Tuckerman,America and Her Commentators:With A Critical Sketch of Travel in the United States,New York:Charles Scribner,1864,p.108。

[4] J.H.M.Salmon,“The Abbe Raynal,1713-1796:An Intellectual Odyssey,”History Today,vol.26,No.2,1976,p.111.

[5] Guillaume Ansart,“Variations on Montesquieu:Raynal and Diderot's Histoire des deux Indes and the American Revolution,”Journal of the History of Ideas,vol.70,No.3,July 2009,pp.403,415.

[6] Irvine,“The Abbe Raynal and British Humanitarianism,”The Journal of Modern History,vol.3,No.4,December 1931,p.566.

[7] 伏尔泰:《哲学通信》,高达观等译,上海人民出版社2014年版,第37页。

[8] Baron de Montesquieu,The Spirit of Law,translated by Thomas Nugent,Revised edition,vol.I,New York:The Colonial Press,1899,Book XI,p.162.

[9] 关于雷纳尔在《英国议会史》中提出的主要观点,参见J.H.M.Salmon,“Liberty by Degrees:Raynal and Diderot on the British Constitution,”History of Political Thought,vol.20,No.1,Spring 1999,pp.89-90。

[10] The Abbé Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History of the Settlements and Trade of the Europeans in the East and West Indies,revised,augmented and published in ten vulumes,Newly Translated by J.O.Justamond,vol.VI,Book XIX,London:Printed for W.Baynes,1813,pp.303-304.(以下书名简写为A Philosophical and Political History。说明:本文所引19世纪之前的书,原书扫描件皆来自https://archive.org网址,以下书籍不再标出该网址。)

[11] 详见Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅵ,Book ⅩⅧ,p.59。

[12] The Abbé Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History of the British Settlement and Trade in North America,two volumes,Edinburgh:Printed by C.MacFarquhar,1776.

[13] 详见Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅴ,Book ⅩⅦ,pp.434-437。

[14] Ansart,“Variations on Montesquieu:Raynal and Diderot's Histoire des deux Indesand the American Revolution,”Journal of the History of Ideas,vol.70,No.3,July 2009,p.403.

[15] 伏尔泰:《哲学通信》,第20页。

[16] 详见Guillaume Ansart,“From Voltaire to Raynal and Diderot's Histoire des deux Indes:The French Philosophesand Colonial America,”in Aurellan Craiutu and Jeffrey C.Isaac,eds.,America Through European Eyes:British and French Reflections on the New World from the Eighteenth Century to the Present,University Park:The Pennsylvania State University Press,2009,p.76。

[17] Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅵ,Book ⅩⅧ,p.2.

[18] Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅵ,Book ⅩⅧ,pp.11,12,13.

[19] Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅵ,Book ⅩⅧ,pp.14,15-16.

[20] 关于新英格兰殖民地为一个“秩序井然”和“管理有方”的社会的描写,详见Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅴ,Book ⅩⅦ,p.442。

[21] Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅵ,Book ⅩⅧ,pp.19-20,125.

[22] The Abbé Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History of the Settlements and Trade of the Europeans in the East and West Indies,vol.Ⅲ,Book ⅩⅧ,Glasgow:Printed by and for D.M’Kenzie,1812,p.301.

[23] 参见Thomas Jefferson,Notes on the State of Virginia,New York:Printed by Davis,1801,pp.97-100;John Adams to Jefferson,February(March 3),1814,in Lester J.Cappon,ed.,The Adams-Jefferson Letters:The Complete Correspondence between Thomas Jefferson and Abigail and John Adams,Chapel Hill:The University of North Carolina Press,1987,p.426。

[24] Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅵ,Book ⅩⅧ,pp.112-113.

[25] Durand Echeverria,Mirage in the West:A History of the French Image of American Society to 1815,New York:Octagon Books,Inc.,1966,p.21.

[26] 详见Benjamin Franklin,Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind,Peopling of Countries,etc.,New York:Reprinted by William Abbatt,1918,p.8。

[27] Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅵ,Book ⅩⅧ,p.123.

[28] 参见Hugh Williamson,“An Attempt to Account for the Change of Climate,which has been observed in the Middle Colonies in North-America,”in Transaction of the American Philosophical Society,vol.I,Philadelphia:Prinnted by William and Thomas Bradford,1771,pp.272-280。

[29] Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅴ,Book ⅩⅦ,pp.366-367.

[30] 参见Count de Buffon,Buffon's Natural History:Containing A Theory of the Earth,A General History of Man,of the Brute Creation,and of Vegetables,Minerals,Translated from the French by J.S.Barr,vol.VII,London:Printed for the Proprietor,1807,p.48。

[31] Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅵ,Book ⅩⅧ,pp.27-28.

[32] Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅴ,Book ⅩⅦ,p.451.

[33] Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅵ,Book ⅩⅧ,1812,p.302.

[34] Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅵ,Book ⅩⅧ,p.126.

[35] Jorge Canizares-Esguerra,How to Write the History of the New World:Historiographies,Epistemologies,and Identities in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World,Stanford:Stanford University Press,2001,p.35.

[36] Paul Hazard,European Thought in the Eighteenth Century from Montesquieu to Lessing,translated by J.Lewis May,Cleveland and New York:The World Publishing Company,1963,p.96.

[37] Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅴ,Book ⅩⅤ,p.138.

[38] Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅵ,Book ⅩⅧ,p.112.

[39] Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅵ,Book ⅩⅧ,p.112.

[40] Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅴ,Book ⅩⅦ,pp.468-469.

[41] Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅴ,Book ⅩⅣ,pp.1-2.

[42] Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅵ,Book ⅩⅧ,p.131.

[43] Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅵ,Book ⅩⅧ,p.149.

[44] The Abbé Raynal,The Revolution of America,London:Printed for Lockyer Davis,1781,p.13.

[45] 参见Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅵ,Book ⅩⅧ,p.247。

[46] Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅵ,Book ⅩⅧ,p.120.

[47] 孟德斯鸠的相关论述参见Montesquieu,The Spirit of Law,vol.I,Book Ⅴ,pp.42-42。

[48] Ansart,“Variations on Montesquieu:Raynal and Diderot's Histoire des deux Indes and the American Revolution,”Journal of the History of Ideas,vol.70,No.3,July 2009,p.418.

[49] Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅵ,Book ⅩⅧ,p.149.

[50] J.Hector St.John de Creveoeur,Letters from an American Farme,Reprinted from the Original Edition,New York:Fox,Duffield & Company,1904,p.xxxii.

[51] 参见Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅴ,Book ⅩⅦ,p.451;vol.Ⅵ,Book ⅩⅧ,pp.241,219。

[52] Irvine,“The Abbe Raynal and British Humanitarianism,”The Journal of Modern History,vol.3,No.4,December 1931,p.570.

[53] Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅵ,Book ⅩⅧ,p.161.

[54] Raynal,The Revolution of America,pp.2,3,10-11,14,25,85.

[55] 参见Thomas Paine,A Letter Addressed to the Abbe Raynal on the Affairs of North-America,London:Printed for J.S.Jordan,1791,pp.1-81。

[56] 详见Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅵ,Book ⅩⅧ,pp.167-174。

[57] Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅵ,Book ⅩⅧ,pp.164-164,216.

[58] 详见Paine,A Letter Addressed to the Abbe Raynal on the Affairs of North-America,pp.1-2。

[59] Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅵ,Book ⅩⅧ,p.196.

[60] Benjamin Franklin to Samuel Cooper,May 1,1777,Paris,in Francis Wharton,ed.,The Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States,vol.2,Washington:Government Printing Office,1889,p.313.

[61] Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅵ,Book ⅩⅧ,pp.244,194.

[62] 参见Willis Fletcher Johnson,America's Foreign Relations,vol.II,New York:The Century Company,1916,pp.134-135。

[63] Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅵ,Book ⅩⅧ,p.200.

[64] Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅵ,Book ⅩⅧ,pp.201,222-223.

[65] Raynal,The Revolution of America,pp.169-170,174,2.

[66] Thomas K.Murphy,A Land without Castles:The Changing Image of America in Europe,1780-1830,Lanham:Lexington Book,2001,p.18.

[67] Raynal,A Philosophical and Political History,vol.Ⅵ,Book ⅩⅧ,pp.242-243,245.

[68] 雷纳尔引用北美报纸的不实新闻引起的贻笑大方之事详见Salmon,“The Abbe Raynal,1713-1796:An Intellectual Odyssey,”History Today,vol.26,No.2,1976,pp.112-113。

[69] Moore,French Observations of America:Intercultural Commentary in the Age of Revolution,p.81.

[70] Ansart,“Variations on Montesquieu:Raynal and Diderot's Histoire des deux Indes and the American Revolution,”Journal of the History of Ideas,vol.70,No.3,2009,p.400.

[71] Raynal,The Revolution of America,p.iii.

[72] William Cobbett,The Life and Adventures of Peter Porcupine,Philadelphia,1796,p.29.

[73] 参见Echeverria,Mirage in the West:A History of the French Image of American Society to 1815,p.144。

[74] Reinhart Koselleck,Critique and Crisis,Cambridge:MIT Press,198,pp.173-186.转引自Moore,French Observations of America:Intercultural Commentary in the Age of Revolution,p.56。

[75] Anthony Pagden,European Encounters with the New World:From Renaissance to Romanticism,New Haven:Yale University Press,1993,p.143.

[76] 详见Ansart,“Variations on Montesquieu:Raynal and Diderot's Histoire des deux Indes and the American Revolution,”Journal of the History of Ideas,vol.70,No.3,2009,p.420;Salmon,“The Abbe Raynal,1713-1796:An Intellectual Odyssey,”History Today,vol.26,No.2,1976,p.117。