第一章 涉外法律文书概述
第一节 法律英语的词汇特征
法律英语是一种专门用途英语(ESP),也是一种工具性语言(instrumental language)。美国法律语言研究权威梅林可夫(Mellinkoff)认为“法律英语”指the English language of law,而加州大学的大卫(David)教授主张用legal English来表述“法律英语”。本书讨论的法律英语主要指以英语为母语的英美法(common law)国家的司法从业者,如律师、法学研究人员、法官、检察官等在以法律为职业和以法学研究为目的的过程中所使用的法律语言。有时候为了更易于理解法律英语的特点,会辅以我国法律条文作为例子从而更好地证明观点。
在对法律英语进行研究的过程中,Mellinkoff针对法律英语的词语特点作了系统的分析,Crystal和Davy(1969)对法律文本的结构和组织进行了分析总结。他们认为:1.法律语言是工具性语言;2.法律文件具有不同于其他类文本的特征;3.法律英语具有明确的特点;4.法律语言使用了日常英语不采用的语义规则。为了更好地理解法律英语,本章节将从法律英语的词汇特征、句法特征、语法特征等方面展开详细分析。
词汇是构成法律英语的基本单元,因此法律英语的词汇研究是法律英语研究的关键。法律英语的词汇特征,主要体现在以下几个方面。
一、具有特殊法律涵义的普通词汇
法律语言中有很多词汇是由普通词汇转换而来,和法律专业术语不同的是,这类普通词汇在法律语境中却有着专业的涵义。准确地掌握这类专业词汇的涵义需要读者对所熟悉词语的法律含义有一定的积累,并且在一定的语境中进行逻辑分析,从而正确地理解。例如:
1.Damage
a.He maliciously damaged a car with a baseball bat.
b.The machines in the clothing factory were old and dangerous and one of the employees injured his hand.The employee sued the factory owners and got 5000 dollars in damages.
Damage在普通语境中一般作及物动词,表示“损害、损毁、破坏”之意(a句)。而在法律语境中,其经常见于侵权法中,一般指代“侵权人向被侵权人支付的损害赔偿金”,词性为名词,而且往往以复数形式出现。
2.Acceptance
a.The Party is being degraded by its acceptance of secret donations.
b.Acceptance cannot contain any suggested changes to the original offer.In addition,acceptance must be communicated and cannot be by silence.
c.Modification of acceptance of bill denotes acts on instruments that payers(acceptors)did – write and sign on the bills and eliminate his/her writings afterwards.
Acceptance通常意指“接受”(a句)。但是在合同法中,其意思为“承诺”,如b句所言,承诺不能够沉默作出,而必须通过某种方式让要约人知道,且承诺不能对要约作出任何改变,否则视为新的要约。而在c句中,acceptance的意思为“承兑”,是票据法中的一种票据行为。c句可翻译为汉语:承兑涂销是指付款人(承兑人)在已承兑的汇票上将其记载的承兑予以消除的票据行为。
由此可见,一个普通英语单词在法律文本中的意思与其通常涵义有很大的区别,而且,在不同的法律语境中,其涵义也有所差异(如句子b和c)。要理解这几个句子,不仅要求读者具备英语语言基础,更要求具备一定的法律知识。
3.Consideration
a.This problem should be reserved for further consideration.
b.In consideration of all the Services provided by ALT Services Ltd.,the Company shall pay the sum of 10000 dollars subject to the provision of the Services and satisfactory completion of work.
Consideration在普通语境中指“考虑”(a句),而在合同法中,其涵义为“对价”(b句)。句子可翻译为:作为ALT Services Ltd所提供服务的对价,公司应依据所提供的服务和工作的圆满完成而支付10000 美元。
而这样的例子在法律英语中不胜枚举,对比如下:
二、外来词的使用
法律本属于上层建筑,而英美法从产生到形成时期英国的统治者均是讲法语的诺曼人,加之拉丁语的影响,因此法律英语中存在大量借用法语、古希腊语和古拉丁语中的专用词汇,包括成语和短语。法律英语中广泛使用拉丁词和拉丁词源的词语使语言严肃冰冷,而从法语借词则使法律语言显得高贵典雅。
另外,随着世界各国的交往日益频繁,国家间法律语言的互相借鉴和援引也随之增多,尤其是在国际交往中通用的法律用语。一些法律文献上常用的标准外来词已经在人们的日常生活中得到认可,其词源逐渐为人们淡忘。
常见的拉丁语外来词有:
常见的法语外来词有:
举例如下:
1.The decision of the judge in common law countries must form what is called the ratio decidendi of the case.This is the Latin for “the reasoning behind the decision”.This is the part of the judge’s words that provide the legal reasoning for his or her decision.Everything else the judge says is called obiter dictum.Obiter dictum is something that is not really necessary for the legal basis for the decision.Only the ratio decidendi is binding.
注:在英美法系国家,法官可以造法,即,法官的判决理由(ratio decidendi)可以成为法律,作为法官处理类似案件的依据,判决理由(ratio decidendi)具有强制约束力,而附带意见(obiter dictum)仅具有参考价值,不具有强制约束力。ratio decidendi和obiter dictum都是来自拉丁语的外来词,但是在法律英语中已经成为非常活跃的词汇并被广泛接受。
为了更好地理解ratio decidendi,请看下面的例子:
2.An Actress was employed for a season,but was delayed by illness from taking up her role until a week after the opening night.(来自英国判例Poussard v Spiers & Pond 1876)
Held:her employers were entitled to terminate the contract:her presence on the opening night was crucial to the contract.
该判例中,女演员因为生病导致不能依约出席开幕式,构成合同重大违约,守约方有权解除合同。其中Held:her employers were entitled to terminate the contract:her presence on the opening night was crucial to the contract就是我们所说的判决理由(ratio decidendi),该部分具有强制约束力。“Held”一词一般被翻译为:“法院认为”。
为了更好地理解附带意见(obiter dictum),请看下面例子:
3.The defendants owned a block of flats on land leased to them by the claimants.By September 1939,many flats had become vacant due to outbreak of war.Consequently,the defendants were having difficulties paying their ground rent.The claimants agreed that they would accept reduced payments.The defendants continued to pay the reduced rent even when the flats refilled and the war was over.
The claimants brought a test case claiming arrears of rent for the last two quarters of 1945(by which time the war had ended).(来自英国判例Central London Property Trust v High Trees House 1947)
Held:the claimants were found to be entitled to the arrears they claimed,but it was also held(obiter dictum)that had they claimed for arrears prior to the end of the war this would have been refused.It would be unfair to allow them to go back on their promise on which the defendants had naturally relied.The claimants’ gratuitous promise operated to suspend their rights to full payment while the extenuating circumstances in which the promise had been made continued to operate.
在上述法官观点中,obiter dictum后面的内容,就是我们所说的法官的附带意见,该意见对于以后的案件具有指导性意义,但不具有强制性约束力。
另外,需要补充的是,上述判例确立了禁止反言原则(promissory estoppel),promissory estoppel也被称为High Trees doctrine(沿用判例名称:Central London Property Trust v High Trees House)。上述判例大概的意思是说:战争期间,房东同意给承租人降低房租,承租人信赖房东的诺言而同意继续租赁房子,但是战争结束后,房东不能食言向承租者追讨承租人在战争期间少交的房租,也即,禁止反言(promissory estoppel)。而战争结束后,由于租房市场的复苏,如果承租人继续按战争期间较低的租赁价格缴纳房租,则房东则有权主张正常价格的租金。
Promissory estoppel(禁止反言)来自拉丁语,该原则的大概意思是:under this principle,parties who gratuitously promise that they will not enforce existing contractual rights may lose their entitlement to do so if it would be unfair to allow them to go back on their promise;they are prevented(estopped)from breaking the promise.
另外,bona fide third party(善意第三人),null and void(无效)等外来词在法律英语中也很常见,针对其用法,此处不再赘述。
三、古英语的存在
古英语词汇在现代英语中已很少使用,但在各种类型的法律性文件中,依然随处可见。一些古旧词汇删除后,并不会对法律文件的解读有实质的影响,因此在英美国家要求法律语言“简明化”的呼声颇高,但一些律师和司法领域从业者认为,为了使法律文件中的语言简练、严谨,体现法律文句的权威性、严肃性和正规性,适当使用古旧词汇是必要的。因此,当我们在一些法律文件中看到这些词汇时,应该理解他们的含义。
其中常见的一种古旧词汇的形式是:副词here/there+介词。如 “herein”“hereon”“thereby”“thereon”等。“here”通常的涵义为“在此文件中、在此合同中,或者在该条款中”,而“there”一般指上文提到的文件、合同、条款等。如:
The persons herein after named 指的就是“在本文件之后所提及的人”
The sum of money borrowed and the interest thereon shall be repaid in full on June 6.此句中的“thereon”指该单词前面所述“sum of money borrowed”。
The titles to the articles are for convenience of reference only,not part of this contract and shall not in any way affect the interpretation thereof.(本协议)各条款之标题仅为查阅方便,非本协议之构成部分,也决不会影响合同的解释。其中“thereof”是指of the said contract。
对于具备一定英语知识的人来说,用英文来解释常见的古旧词汇,会更有利于理解,如:
1.Hereby——by means of this document/with that words/with this action.
“I hereby accept your offer.”
兹接受你的要约。
“The undersigned hereby certify that the goods to be supplied are made in the USA.”
下列签署人兹证明所供应之货物在美国国内制造。
2.Herein——in this document.
“The price named herein is final and non-negotiable.”
合同中的价格是最终的、没有谈判余地的。
3.Hereto——to this contract.
“All disputes arising from the performance of this Contract shall,through amicable negotiations,be settled by the Parties hereto” .
对于因履行本合同所发生的一切争议,本合同双方应友好协商解决。
4.Hereinafter ——starting from this time/later in this document.
“ALT Electronics plc,hereinafter known as ‘the Company’.”
ALT Electronics plc在此后被称为“该公司”。
5.Heretofore——earlier in this document/previously/before the time of writing.
“The property heretofore known as Downing House is renamed Appleby House.”
此前所提及的名为Downing House的物业被重新命名为Appleby House。
6.Hereunder——in a later part of this document/under the terms of this agreement.
“The terms and conditions are listed hereunder.”
合同中所列条款。
7.Thereby——as a result of this or that action.
“Your client signed the contract and thereby entered into a binding agreement.”
你的客户签署该合同并因此受合同约束。
8.Therein ——in or into a particular place or thing/in that/in there.
“The rented property and the furniture contained therein.”
合同中所包含的租赁物业和家具。
9.Thereon ——on it/on there/on what I have just mentioned.
“The amount borrowed and the interest due thereon must be repaid by May 22,2016.”
所借本金和利息必须在2016年5月22日之前付清。
10.Thereinafter——later in that place or thing/later in what I have just mentioned.
“We were defined in that contract as the Company and we were known as the Company thereinafter.”
在合同中,我们被定义为“该公司”,并在此后被称为“该公司”。
11.Thereto ——to it,to the thing that I have just mentioned.
“At the meeting we will discuss Mrs.Smith’ will and all matters related thereto.”
在会议上我们讨论了史密斯夫人的遗嘱及与遗嘱相关的所有问题。
另外,还有一些古旧词汇用来指代“本文件/合同/条款前面所提及的事物”,如said,aforesaid,aforementioned,the same.
1.The contract between the claimant and the defendant was signed in August.Said contract was for the supply of goods.
该句中的“said contract”指代句子所述“The contract between the claimant and the defendant”.
2.The goods should be inspected by the Buyer upon delivery.All goods come with a delivery note.In the event that goods cannot be examined by the Buyer the aforementioned document shall be marked “not examined”.
该句子中的 aforementioned document 指代句子中的delivery note.
3.Any defective goods must be returned to the Supplier.Said goods must be correctly packaged.
该句中的“said goods”指代句子中的defective goods。
4.Payment must be made upon delivery of the goods.The exception is where payment by invoice has been agreed.In the event of payment by invoice payment must be made within 30 days of receipt of the same.
该句中的“ the same”指代句子中的invoice。
四、词语并列现象
法律英语中经常出现一些近义词并列使用的现象,即,用两个或者三个意思相近或者相同的词构成一个短语以表达法律上本来只需要一个词就能表达的概念,这体现了法律语言的严肃性和法律文本的准确性和严密性,确保了整体含义的完整、准确。如:
1.The amendments to or alteration of this contract become effect only after they are signed by parties hereto and approved by the original approving authorities.
译文:该合同的任何修改只有在双方签署并由最初的审批机关批准后方生效。
2.If the contract shall duly perform and observe all terms,provisions,conditions and stipulations of the said Contract,this obligation shall be null and void but otherwise shall be and remain in full force and effect.
译文:如果承包人切实履行并遵守上述合同的所有条款、条件及规定,此义务即告终止,否则将保持完全有效。
除了上述两个句子中的amendments to or alteration of,terms,provisions,conditions,and stipulations,null and void,in full force and effect等词语并列现象外,其他常见的并列现象如下:
Any and all全部
Any duties,obligations or liabilities所有责任
Charges,fees,costs and expenses各种费用
Covenants and agreements 合同、协议
Customs and usages惯例
Free and clear of无
Import duty and tax进口税捐
Keep secrete and confidential保密
Licenses and permits许可
Packing and wrapping expenses包装费
Rights and interests权益
Settle claims and debts清理债务
Ships and vessels船只
Sign and issue签发
Support and maintenance维护
Use and wont习惯、惯例
Null and void无效
五、介词短语的使用
为了体现法律语言的严肃性,法律英语的措辞风格以严谨、庄重为主,多采用正式书面体。所谓法律文书中的正式词汇,不但指相对于口语用词而言的书面语用词,尤其指普通书面语体中不常用的正式程度较高的词汇或短语。如常见的书面体用语according to,concerning/regarding/ with regard to,但是在法律英语中,一般采用正式程度更高的、表达相同概念的词汇如in accordance with,pursuant to及in respect of。
1.The participants in the Joint Venture shall commence discussion with regard to the extension of the period of existence of the Venture and in the event of their agreeing upon such extension,they shall record such agreement in a written document signed by all of them not later than three years prior to the expiry of the current period.
译文:就本合资企业的存续时限的延期问题,各方应进行讨论;一旦各方就此达成一致,应形成书面协议,由各方在本合同期限到期之前的三年内签字生效。
本句中的三个介词短语 with regard to,in the event of,prior to分别对应三个介词about,if,before。用介词短语代替,更好地体现了法律英语的正式性。
其他类似的用介词短语来代替介词的表达方式有:in the near future(soon),until such times as(until),on the part of(by),at the present time(now),during such time as(while),due to the fact that(because),notwithstanding(despite),inclusive of(including),referred to(named,called,mentioned)等。
另外,法律英语中经常出现的两个正式介词或介词短语有:notwithstanding和inasmuch as。
Notwithstanding的含义为:despite or in spite of something。如::
2.The new law concerning the protection of the environment will come into force next year,notwithstanding a huge amount of opposition to it from industry.
译文:尽管有来自行业大量反对的声音,新的有关环境保护的法律将会在明年生效。
而inasmuch as 的含义为:what you are saying in the rest of the sentence is true only in a limited way or to a certain extent。如:
3.The judge in the Court of Appeal held that the court of first instance made a mistake inasmuch as inadmissible evidence was taken into consideration.
译文:上诉法院的法官认为一审法院由于采信了不能采纳的证据导致作出了错误判决。
4.Caroline is a good lawyer inasmuch as she usually gets a good result in court.However,she is not very good at keeping up to date with important work.
译文:卡罗林总是能够取得好的诉讼效果,在这方面,她是个好律师。但是,她不太擅长跟进一些重要的工作。
六、专业词语的使用
法律英语的正式性还体现在一些专业词汇、甚至是生僻词汇的使用,以体现法律英语的严肃性和正式性。如:
1.The Licensee will notify the Licensor and shall assist the Licensor in taking such action as the Licensor deems appropriate.
句子中的notify,assist,deem相对于常用的inform,help,think要正式很多。
2.The term “Effective date” means the date on which this Agreement is duly executed by the parties hereto.
该句中的execute相对sign要更加正式一些。
又比如用premises代替place来表示企业的经营场所,用commence代替start,用termination或者expiration代替end,用comply with代替obey,用subsequent to代替after,用procurement代替purchase,用term代替duration,用aggregate代替total,用undertake代替do等。
七、情态动词的特殊法律内涵
在法律英语中,shall和may是经常出现的两个情态动词,然而在法律英语中,这两个词的使用方法和普通英语有很大的区别。
(一)Shall在法律英语语境中的使用
Shall在普通英语中通常构成第一人称复数的将来时态。法律的主要功能有授权、使负担义务或禁止,shall在法律英语中经常表示一种义务性约定,体现当事人必须承担的责任和义务,带有指令性和强制性,也同时体现法律文件的权威性和约束性。它通常被译为“应、应当”,如:
(1)The quality and prices of the commodities to be exchanged between the eximporters in the two countries shall be acceptable to both sides.
译文:货物的质量和价格应当使进出口双方都能接受。
(2)The board meeting shall be convened and presided over by the Chairman.Should the chairman be absent,the vice-Chairman shall,in principle,convene and preside over the board meeting.
译文:董事会会议应由董事长召集、主持;若董事长缺席,原则上应由副董事长召集、主持。
(二)May在法律英语语境中的使用
在普通英语中,may一般在疑问句中用来提出请求,在陈述句中表示可能,或者表达祝福,但是在法律英语中,由于法律的强制性与指令性,may的通常含义是“给予许可或给予某人做某事的授权”,是一种选择性约定,通常翻译为“可以”。如:
A civil juristic act may be in written,oral or other form.If the law stipulates that a particular form be adopted,such stipulation shall be observed.
译文:民事法律行为可以采取书面形式、口头形式或者其他形式。法律规定是特定形式的,应当依照法律规定。
从该句中,我们也可以更好地理解shall和may的区别。根据法理学相关知识,法律规则分为授权性规则和义务性规则,授权性规则是指规定人们有权做一定行为或者不做一定行为的规则,即规定人民的“可为模式”的规则,一般在这样的规则中会出现情态动词may,表达一种选择性约定。而义务性规则是指在内容上规定人们的法律义务,即有关人们应该做出或者不做出某种行为的规则,一般在这样的规则中会出现情态动词shall,表达一种义务性约定。上述法律条文的前半句是一种授权性规则,即,民事法律行为可以采取书面形式、口头形式或者其他形式,故用may。而后半句是一种义务性规则,如果法律规定了特定形式,则应遵循特定形式,故用shall。
八、法律英语的模糊性和精确性
根据L.A.Zadeh提出的模糊集合理论以及由此产生的模糊语言学,我们知道法律英语作为自然语言之一,必然具有模糊性,法律英语的模糊性不仅存在,而且具有自身的作用。社会生活的多样性和语言的限制性之间的矛盾造成法律英语必须具有概括性的特点,从而产生模糊。另外,由于法律具有滞后性,由于社会及经济的逐步发展,社会文化、人们的思想意识、法律标准也在发生深刻的变化,过去某些被律师及法律工作者认为是确定的法律名词现在又被提出质疑,从而产生了模糊性。如汉语法律文书中经常用到“情节严重”“数额巨大”“多次盗窃”“其他”“任何单位和个人”等词义模糊的词语,有很强的不确定性。英语法律语言也是如此,如 about,as soon as possible,necessary,average等。
以《中华人民共和国刑法》为例。《中华人民共和国刑法》第264条规定:“盗窃公司财务,数额较大的,或者多次盗窃、入户盗窃、携带凶器盗窃、扒窃的,处三年以下有期徒刑、拘役或者管制,并处或者单处罚金;数额巨大或者有其他严重情节的,处三年以上十年以下有期徒刑,并处罚金;数额特别巨大或者有其他特别严重情节的,处十年以上有期徒刑或者无期徒刑,并处罚金或者没收财产。” 该法条中,存在三种法定刑,主要由盗窃的数额决定的,而“数额较大”“数额巨大”和“数额特别巨大”很显然是模糊的。《最高人民法院、最高人民检察院关于办理盗窃刑事案件适用法律若干问题的解释》第一条规定:“盗窃公私财物价值一千元至三千元以上、三万元至十万元以上、三十万元至五十万元以上的,应该分别认定为刑法第二百六十四条规定的‘数额较大’、‘数额巨大’、‘数额特别巨大’。各省、自治区、直辖市高级人民法院、人民检察院可以根据本地区经济发展状况,并考虑社会治安状况,在前款规定的数额幅度内,确定本地区执行的具体数额标准,报最高人民法院、最高人民检察院批准。”
比如在广东省,盗窃价值在3000元(二类地区2000元)以上为“数额较大”,而在贵州省,盗窃价值在1000元以上为“数额较大”。由此可见,即使司法解释规定了三种法定刑的入罪标准,但由于各省经济发展水平的差异,在数额认定标准上,也是有区别的。即使在一个省内,一类地区和二类地区的入刑标准也有所区别。但是,也正是由于法律语言的模糊性,在解释法律的时候,能够考虑各地实际情况,使得法律能够更好地得到适用。
同理,该法条中的“严重情节”“特别严重情节”也体现了法律语言的模糊性。由于模糊性具有包容原则,这使得法律能够得以更广泛的应用。
而有时候模糊性和精确性却是辩证统一的。如在传票“你已被本院传唤,请于接到本传票之日起20日内在本法院出庭”。翻译为英文:“You are summoned to appear and answer this action in the Court named above by filing an Answer along with the required answer fee within twenty(20)consecutive days from the service of this summons,not including the day of service.If the twentieth day is Saturday,Sunday or a legal holiday,then this time shall run until the end of the next day which is NOT a Saturday,Sunday or legal holiday.”
在英文翻译中,考虑到周末和法定节假日的影响,对于20日进行了详细解释,以更好地告知当事人诉讼法中关于送达期间的规定,体现了法律英语的精确性。
又如:Shipment:To be shipped on or before Feb.28,2014.
译文:2014年2月28日前(含28日)装船。
on or before Feb.28,2014增译为 “2月28日前(含28日)”,使得译文更加精确和严密,避免导致曲解。
针对法律英语的模糊现象,法律文本的中英文两种语言的转换中,除了使用上述的增译法之外,也可以采取省略法。如:
1.In all cases affecting ambassadors,other public ministers and consuls,and those in which a state shall be a party,the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction.In all the other cases before mentioned,the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction,both as to law and fact,with such exceptions,and under such regulations as the Congress shall make.
在英语中,such 是个模糊词汇,意思是“这样的”,但是在结构 “with such exceptions,and under such regulations as the Congress shall make”,如果译为“国会有这样的例外和规定除外”,原文意思就没有得到恰当的表达。而如果省略翻译such,翻译为“但国会规定为例外及另有处理条例者,不在此限”则显得简明清晰多了。因此,可以将上述句子翻译为:“在一切有关大使、公使、领事以及州为当事一方的案件中,最高法院有最初审理权。在上述所有其他案件中,最高法院有关于法律和事实的上诉受理权,但国会规定为例外及另有处理条例者,不在此限。”
英汉两种语言中均存在大量的模糊词语,但译者有时候可以直接采用直译的办法来处理这一现象,也可以很好地表达原文的信息。例如:
2.The applicant or the insured shall notify the Insurer in a timely manner of the occurrence of any insured event once it is known to them.
译文:一旦发生保险事故,投保人或被保险人应在知道后及时通知保险人。
3.Unless this account is paid within twenty days,we will take further measures.
译文:除非二十天内把款付清,否则我们将采取进一步的措施。
对于这句话中的“take further measures”,完全可以用“start legal proceedings”或“bring lawsuit”等来代替。但是用模糊词语“take further measures”使得表达更加含蓄、委婉,缓解了可能的诉讼给双方带来的紧张局面。
另外,通过意译法(free translation),根据原文的精神实质,使译文更忠实通顺地表达原文的思想内容而增加或减少适当的词语,而非机械地保持原文与译文在词量或字面含义上的对等,也有助于解决法律英语模糊性造成的在实务写作和翻译方面的困难,如:
4.The Insurer shall have the right to terminate the insurance contract,in the case that the applicant intentionally does not perform his/her obligation of making a full and accurate disclosure,or fails,due to gross negligence,to perform such obligation to the extent that it would materially affect the Insurer’s decision whether or not to underwrite the insurance or whether or not to increase the premium rate.
译文:投保人故意或因重大过失未履行如实告知义务,足以影响保险人决定是否同意承保或者提高保险费率的,保险人有权解除保险合同。
Materially本意是“本质上”,译文灵活处理,将其翻译为“足以”,显得更为简洁。
5.This Agreement may be immediately terminated by one of the Parties,without compensation from either side,in case of bankruptcy,winding up,or legal or factual,direct or indirect,taking over by a third party of the other party.
译文:如果一方破产、解散或在法律上或事实上直接或间接地被第三方所接管,另一方可立即终止本协议,任何一方无须就此做出赔偿。
原句中,one of the Parties不能直译为“一方”,或者“任何一方”,而应根据语境灵活翻译为“另一方”。同理,the other party应翻译为“一方”,表达协议终止的一种假设情形。
九、名词化结构的使用
“语法隐喻”这一概念是Halliday在《功能语法导论》(1985)中首先提出来的。根据系统功能语言学理论,语言是由音系层(phonology)、词汇语法层(lexico-grammar)和话语意义层(discourse semantics)构成的三层次符号系统,且三个层次之间是体现和被体现的关系,即,音系层体现了词汇语法层,而词汇语法层体现了话语意义层。体现方式大致有两种:(1)一致式(congruent form),即无标记形式;(2)非一致式(incongruentform),或隐喻式,即有标记形式。
所谓一致式,就是通过用名词体现事件过程的参与者,用动词体现过程本身,用形容词体现事物的特征,用副词或介词词组体现时间、地点、工具、方式等环境意义(circumstantial meaning),用连词体现逻辑意义,从而使词汇语法层所表达的表层意义和话语意义层所表达的深层意义彼此相同。但是,如果词汇语法层所表达的表层意义和话语意义层所表达的深层意义不一致,例如,用名词体现过程、用名词体现特征、用动词体现时间关系或因果关系等,使词汇语法层所表达的表层意义和话语意义层所表达的深层意义变得不一致,属于有标记形式,就是非一致式,这种现象也叫语法隐喻,其中名词化就是其中一种常见的形式。例如:
[a] The man drove the car too fast down the slope,so the brakes failed.
[b] The man’s overrapid downslope driving of the car caused brake failure.
[a]属于一致式,三个动作参与者分别用名词the man,the car和the brake表示,动词drive和fail分别表示两个过程,用副词词组so fast体现表示速度的环境意义,用介词词组down the slope体现表示方向的环境意义,由连词so体现表示因果关系的逻辑意义。而[b]则属于非一致式,三个动作参与者和环境意义都变成了名词词组中的修饰成分,逻辑意义变成了过程本身,而过程却通过名词化的使用变成了参与者。
作为语法隐喻的一种重要体现形式,名词化(normalization)就是“将过程和特性经过隐喻化,不再是小句中的过程或修饰语,而是以名词形式体现的参与者”(胡壮麟,1996),或者是“将小句通过变为名词或名词词组的方式,使表过程的动词或表性质的形容词具有名词特征,从而减少及物性小句,使自然语义句的信息密度增大”的一种表达形式(杨敏,2004)。
Quirk等人(1985)从词性转换的角度对名词化作过界定,把它看作是“一个在形态上与小句谓语相对应的名词短语”。也有人将名词化视为动词或形容词用作名词这一语言现象。一般认为,名词化指的就是把某个过程或特征看作事物,并通过词性转换使得这种现象得以实现。
一般说来,语篇的技术性与名词化出现的频率是成正比的,即,语篇的技术性越高,名词化出现的频率越高。反之,名词化使用得越多,语篇的技术性越强(Halliday 1998b)。因此,科技、法律语篇作为技术性较高的语篇,名词化的语法隐喻出现的频率也较高。而小说、寓言等文学类语篇的技术性较低,名词化出现的频率较低。
学者王晋军从实证主义分析的角度对五种不同类型的语篇进行了分析统计,统计结果表明:名词化在法律语篇中的比例为83.5%,科技语篇为72.6%,新闻语篇为40.3%,小说和寓言故事分别为27.2%和0.7%。由此可见,法律语篇中充满大量的名词化结构,而且法律语篇的正式性、严谨性、准确性、庄重性等必然要求大量使用名词化结构。通过在法律语篇中使用语法隐喻,可以实现信息浓缩或虚化,从而泛化特定行为概念,虚化行为概念的主体和受体,增强法律的适用性。
以上分析表明,语法隐喻存在多种情形,名词化是最主要的情形,也是法律英语的典型特征。在运用法律英语的过程中,如何运用名词化结构,从而使法律英语文本简洁紧凑、信息密集、使法律英语文本符合规范的表达方式,可以从以下几个方面来运用名词化结构:
1.将动宾结构转译成英文名词化结构
(1)公司股东依法享有资产收益、参与重大决策和选择管理者等权利。
Shareholders of a company shall be entitled to gains on assets,participation in major decision-making and selection of managers in accordance with the law.
(2)设立外资企业,必须有利于中国国民经济的发展,并且采用先进的技术和设备,或者产品全部出口或者大部分出口。
The establishment of foreign-invested enterprises shall be beneficial to the development of China’s national economy;they shall use advanced technology and equipment or market all or most of their products outside China.
2.将状语成分转译成英文名词化结构
无论本协议是否有相反规定,如任一方被法律诉讼或政府法规要求披露在此接收的保密信息时,该方应立即通知另一方上述要求,且应另一方的要求该方应配合另一方对此披露要求进行抗辩。除未能履行前款所述义务外,双方对于依司法程序或政府法规所做披露而造成的损失概不负责。
Notwithstanding any contrary provisions herein contained,should either party be faced with legal action or a requirement under governmental regulations to disclose Confidential Information received hereunder,such party shall promptly notify the furnishing party of such requirement,and upon the request of the furnishing party,shall cooperate with the furnishing party in contesting such disclosure.Except in connection with failure to discharge responsibilities set forth in the preceding sentence, neither party shall be liable in damages for any disclosure pursuant to judicial action or governmental regulations.
3.将小分句转译为英文名词化结构
(1)限制民事行为能力人订立的合同,经法定代理人追认后,该合同有效,但纯获利益的合同或者与其年龄、智力、精神健康状况相适应而订立的合同,不必经法定代理人追认。
A contract concluded by a person with limited civil capacity for conduct becomes effective upon ratification by its legal agent(s),provided that a contract from which such person accrues benefits only or the conclusion of which is appropriate for his age,intelligence or mental health does not require ratification by his legal agent(s).
(2)只有在另一方事先书面同意、经董事会一致通过并经审批机关批准后,一方才可向第三方出售、转让或以其他方式处置(合称“转让”)其对合营公司注册资本享有的全部或部分权益。
A party may sell,transfer or otherwise dispose of(each a “transfer”)all or any part of its interest in the registered capital of the Company to any third party only with prior written consent of the other party,the approval of the Board and the approval of the Examination and Approval Authority.
(3)民事主体从事民事活动,应当有利于节约资源、保护生态环境。
Any civil activity conducted by civil subjects shall be conducive to saving resources and protecting the ecological environment.
4.将“…的”结构转译为英文名词性结构
在法律文本中,会有大量的“…的”结构表述假设或者条件,对于此结构,也可以通过转过为名词性结构的方式进行处理。
(1)有限责任公司变更为股份有限公司的,或者股份有限公司变更为有限责任公司的,公司变更前的债权、债务由变更后的公司承继。
In the case of a conversion from a limited liability company into a company limited by shares or vice versa,the liability of the company before the conversion shall be assumed by the converted company.
(2)上市公司重大资产重组存在下列情形之一的,应当提交并购重组委审核。
Any of the following circumstances arising in a listed company’s major assets restructuring shall be submitted to the Listed Company Merger and Reorganization Examination Committee for examination.