SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS

By ANNA BOYNTON THOMPSON

The methods by which history is studied should be necessity of commensurate with its significance: they should not limit themselves to a mere memory-cram, but should develop the powers of thought in equal degree with mathematics and metaphysics: the study of history should be essentially a study of a logic which is written in concrete facts. The problem which confronts the teacher is to discover the practical methods by which the facts of history may be used as raw material for classification according to the laws of thought.

What does the nature of history force us to examine Historical first, if we are to grasp it intelligently? Surely the primal elements which shape history: these are physical environment and ethnological stock; hence the history of every nation should open with the study of the Land and the People. In this book the physical setting of each historic movement and its determining influence of direction is put vividly before the student, who is led continually to look at the action of history as playing upon the mighty background of nature, as being the final outcome and resultant of the forces of nature, and to feel that the comprehension of the relative influences of these forces is the comprehension of history.

How can the configuration of the land best be studied? Obviously by representing it upon maps: let there be a painted board-map showing the forms of land, in each classroom, and let every pupil who recites trace upon it the substance of his recitation whenever it is possible to devise for it graphic representation; home study of geographical detail should consist in putting it upon outline maps, and examination should be made by demanding work upon outline maps in the recitation hour, which the pupil should explain and justify in oral recitation. Graphic representation should not be confined to the study of geography alone: it should be applied to every possible subject, and the enlargement of its scope should be sought by stimulating the ingenuity of the student to devise new methods: the more abstract the subject, the greater the need of concrete handling.

After the physical features of the country have been grasped, the next question which confronts the class is how to learn the facts of its history; in other words, how to handle books. The following methods are the outcome of many years'experience:

（1）Use the given text-book as a guiding thread, grasp its structure by making a digest（p. xl）of each chapter. This book is specially fitted for such work, for the bold-face topics are logically unfolded in the marginals, thereby setting a model for digest-making; but the exigencies of the printed page have made it impossible to show the relation of these topics to one another, hence much remains for the student to do in gathering them under inclusive heads.Let every student bring his written digest to class; send one student to the board; call for the first great inclusive head; when given, ask for class criticism: is it the one which regard for logical order forces to be first? Call for other suggestions; criticise these; put the fitting one upon the board with brace against it for minor topics; call for the second great inclusive head; proceed as before. When the great headings have been put upon the board, develop the minor topics of each in the same manner. The result is the “class digest, ” which all copy in note-book.

（2）The students are next directed to choose from the bibliography at the head of the chapter matter for private reading, and to insert with red ink in their proper places in Suggestions to Teachers class digest all important additional topics and individual reflections and conclusions. Such private reading can be easily overlooked if note-books and “Special Reports, ” stating subject, authorities, time spent, are handed in weekly, or if the teacher has a weekly fifteen-minute conference with each student.

（3）When the private reading is finished each student prepares, with amended class digest as basis, a continuous recitation of the subject. In this recitation two ends are sought—dignity of presentation, and individual contribution to the knowledge of the class: the speaker must avoid rambling, windy talk, must instruct his hearers, and must hold their interest, if he occupies their time.

（4）After the recitation, students take note-books, and, with the teacher, criticise the emphasis of the speaker; the really important points are distinguished and entered in note-book.

（5）These important points are studied carefully at home, and the next day the teacher begins the lesson with a fire of sharp, quick questions upon them: a question is given first, a pause of a moment allowed that each may formulate his answer, then a name is called and an instantaneous answer is demanded. Abundant time for thought has already been three times given:（1）when making the class digest; （2）when inserting individual topics; （3）when discussing relative importance of points and entering them in note-book. What now is required is drill of self at home, concentration of attention, and alertness in the class.

（6）Each important point which is a stage in the development of an historic whole, a link in an historic chain, is entered in a note-book. For instance, when we reach the First Assembly of Virginia, we recognize it as a point in the development of representative institutions; hence these must be briefly traced from their beginning, for Aristotle's thesis is the motto of every intelligent history class:“Here, as elsewhere, the best system of examination will be to begin at the beginning and observe things in their growth.”

Under “Representative Institutions, ” the following heads are presumably entered in note-book:（1）contrast with collective assemblies of ancient world; （2）state comparative advantages of and illustrate by historic example; （3）describe origin in English history; （4）describe their transfer into political life by Simon de Montfort, 1265；（5）how given royal sanction by Edward I?（6）describe personal government of king under Tudors and Stuarts. Here, for the present, we stop, for our study has not gone beyond 1619. But every new point in the development of representative institutions which we meet in the course of American history is entered under this topic and contrasted with the line of development in England.

This note-book is of the utmost importance. Keeping it trains the power of analysis and of classification, of recognition of relations; it gives reasoned order to historic contents because it impresses indelibly upon the student the unity of history, its continuity, the truth that its course is a course of natural development, a chain of cause and effect; its contents furnish worthy material for as many themes as it has headings. Perhaps no pedagogical device so helps the teacher as the keeping of this note-book of historic evolution.

（7）But the task of relating events is not finished when each separate chain of cause and effect has been disentangled: to relate the chains to one another as integral parts of the history of one country is necessary. This task is accomplished by making a “perspective of[American]history.” The word “perspective” is used advisedly, for the digest designated by this name is of such nature as to indicate at once the relative importance of the different topics by the place they occupy upon the page. An example of such a perspective is to be found on page xxxvi. Whenever the study of a new subject is begun the first task should be to put it in its proper relation in the unfolding of the history as a whole, in other words, to mark its position in the perspective. For instance, when beginning the administration of Thomas Jefferson class and teacher should turn to the perspective and should note that the administration opens an epoch（1）marked by the “establishment of National Democracy, ”（2）extending from 1801 to 1841，（3）preceded by the epoch of “establishment of Federal Authority, ”（4）followed by the epoch of the “Contest over Slavery”；（5）these three epochs are subdivisions of the great “Contest between Federal Authority and State Rights, ” which extends from 1789-1861. We have now gained in a few moments a clear view of the relation of Jefferson's administration to the rest of United States history and are ready for the intelligent study of its details. In this study, also, we cling fast to the perspective, for the sub-topics at the right show us what to emphasize. When the epoch（1801-1841）is finished, the questions in the class-drill should demand all the points of external relationship indicated above, together with necessary knowledge of details and their inner relations. Every new subject should receive similar treatment. Thus the perspective is constantly reviewed, becomes the skeleton about which added knowledge centers, gives definite shape to what otherwise might be chaotic material, and enables the student at any moment to call before his view the total progress of history up to a given point. By this means, again, the unity of history is demonstrated. The use of the perspective should be supplemented by constant drill in the lists of dates（p.xxvii）.

（8）Emphasis upon the whole trend of history should be accompanied by a recognition of its organic nature, permitting manifold points of view: its various aspects, as constitutional, economic, social, ethical, religious, artistic, should be set forth, and the temperament of each student allowed to place its own accent. Students should be encouraged to centralize their private work upon congenial aspects, and their various results should be gathered together as so many elements of the one complex truth.Each student should be habituated to compare the development of the subjects of his special interest with similar development in other countries. For instance, the student whom the constitutional side attracts should compare at every step—in its origin, nature, workings, etc.—the constitution of America with that of England, of France, or of Germany. If economic history is his interest, he will study the principles of economics, and also note the individual development of other commercially important countries. By this comparative method each student is taught to look at his personal interest in as broad a way as possible. The result of his special work may be handed in as a “term theme.” These themes should be preceded by bibliography and digest.

（9）The student's growth in judgment and in grasp of material can be well tested by a written recitation. In this exercise a question which demands the application to a given historical problem of principles already learned is put before the class; fifteen minutes are allowed for its written discussion; the papers are corrected by the teacher and returned, or he gives an oral exposition of the subject, and requests the class to change papers and correct one another's work.

（10）One of the most important features of this book is the lists of “Topics for Investigation by Individual Students” in the sources, which Professor Channing has added to each set of questions. The new requirements of college entrance examinations include work with sources. But the ordinary teacher is not familiar with sources, does not know which are easily accessible, or what topics for research are fitted to the powers of the high-school pupil.Only the specialist can answer these questions.Here they are twice answered—not only by the lists just mentioned, but by fitting marginal reference to sources against the text. The special convenience of this latter device is that it forces the literature of American history upon the attention of the teacher and the student, and that each is put in the way of pursuing to the fountain head a subject in which he is specially interested.Hence the various tastes in the class can find the gratification of congenial work.

In general it may be said that the distinguishing characteristic of this book is its capability of helping even the untrained teacher to do work according to the best methods, and thereby meet the new requirements advocated by the associations of colleges and schools of the Middle States and of New England. Each one of these requirements is recognized in some fashion or other, and if the book is used in the various ways suggested no one of them will offer difficulties.

The “Suggestive Questions” which follow each chapter Character are intended to be only suggestive: no one class is expected to answer them all. They simply indicate various and Topics kinds of work in harmony with the new movement in history teaching. From them the teacher can select what suits his conditions.

Questions upon the text have been avoided for several reasons:（1）The methods indicated—digests, “fluents, ” class-drill, note-books, etc.—force from both teacher and student continual questioning and cross-questioning of the text; （2）It is essential that the student obtain some idea of the possible breadth of historic study: he must learn to view history as a resultant of countless forces, which finds its completeness only in so far as the manifoldness of these forces is recognized: they must be traced in the past, watched in the present, their interaction constantly noted. Hence the Questions seek to relate any one epoch of American history with other epochs and with other phases of world-history.

Thayer Academy, South Braintree, Mass.