七 结论
国际组织豁免的职能性限制,主要是从法理依据上,通过职能必要对其豁免的范围进行限定。职能必要既是国际组织豁免存在的理论基础,也是决定国际组织豁免的范围的标准。国际组织享有豁免的范围,包括其人员与行为的范围,都是由国际组织的职能需要决定的。只有在国际组织职能必要的范围内,国际组织及其人员就其公务行为才享有必要的豁免。国际组织及其人员的行为一旦超越了这一范围,则不能主张豁免权。国际组织只能在其职能必要的范围内享有有限的豁免,因而构成对国际组织豁免的内在制约。
综上所述,可以得出结论认为,职能必要理论构成对国际组织豁免的限制,即国际组织只能享有实现其目的和履行其职能所必要的豁免权。慷慨的授权与严格的限制如影随形。这就说明,世界上没有不受限制和约束的权利。国际组织豁免也不能例外,它同样是一种受到限制或制约的权利。如果说国际组织豁免依然具有某种绝对性,那么只能认为,国际组织在职能必要范围内享有豁免,在这一点上是绝对的。因此,本文对国际组织豁免的性质,即其限制性而非绝对性特征,作出了有说服力的论证。
On the Functional Restriction of Immunity of International Organizations
Li Zan
Abstract: The immunity of international organizations(IOs)is the important legal issue in international law. There are two opinions about the nature of immunity of IOs. They are absolute immunity and restrictive immunity. The latter is easier to be accepted because it matches the facts of IOs immunity more. But the former is wrong because of its logic analogy with the doctrine of limited state immunity,the latter is necessary but not enough because of its reasoning logic of the need of human protection. IOs are conferred immunity according to their need of enforcement of functions and fulfillment of purposes. Functional necessity forms the restriction to immunity of IOs. Functional immunity of IOs means restrictive immunity simultaneously.
Key Words:International Organizations(IOs);Immunity of IOs;Functional Restriction
[1] 李赞,法学博士,中国社会科学院国际法研究所助理研究员。
[2] 国际货币基金组织(IMF)总裁多米尼克·斯特劳斯-卡恩(Dominique Strauss-Kahn)在2011年5月14日被美国纽约市警方带走,次日,警方宣布正式拘留卡恩,并以“强奸未遂”等罪名对其提起刑事指控。不久,卡恩宣布辞去总裁职务并于5月19日获得保释。目前,该案以卡恩被宣布无罪释放而告一段落,但其对国际组织及其豁免问题的影响将十分深远。
[3] Michael Singer,“Jurisdictional Immunity of International Organizations:Human Rights and Functional Necessity Concerns”,(1995)36 Virginia Journal of International Law,p.116.
[4] August Reinisch,International Organizations before National Courts(Cambridge University Press,2000),pp.335-336.
[5] 关于国际组织职能性豁免问题,可参见李赞《论国际组织豁免的理论依据》,《北方法学》2011年第3期,第115~125页。
[6] Peter H.F.Bekker,The Legal Position of Intergovernmental Organizations,A Functional Necessity Analysis of Their Legal Status and Immunities(Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,1994),p.110.
[7] Thomas J.O’Toole,“Sovereign Immunity Redivivus:Suits against International Organizations”,(1980)4 Suffolk Transnational Law Journal,p.3.
[8] C.Wilfred Jenks,International Immunities(Stevens & Sons and Oceana Publications,1961),p.xxxviii.
[9] Gordon H.Glenn,Mary M.Kearney and David J.Padilia,“Immunities of International Organizations”,(1982)22 Virginia Journal of International Law,p.266.
[10] C.T.Oliver,et al.,The International Legal System:Cases and Materials(The Foundation Press,4th edn,1995),p.613.
[11] Reinisch,International Organizations before National Courts,p.234.
[12] 《联合国法律年鉴1992年》中文版,联合国—纽约,1998,第12~13页。
[13] Leonardo Díaz González,Fouth Report on Relations between States and International Organizations,Second Part of the Topic,UN Doc.A/CN.4/424,(1989)II Yearbook of the International Law Commission,p.157.
[14] FAO,Office of the Legal Counsel,“Constitutional Matters”,(1982)United Nations Juridical Yearbook,p.113.
[15] Advisory Opinion on Reparations for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations of 11 April,1949.ICJ Reports,174,1949,pp.182-184.
[16] Glenn,Kearney and Padilia,“Immunities of International Organizations”,p.277.
[17] Ary Spaans v.The Netherlands,European Commission of Human Rights,Application No.12516/86,12 December 1988,(1988)119 Decisions and Reports,p.122.
[18] X v.International Centre for Superior Mediterranean Agricultural Studies,Court of Appeals of Crete,1991.
[19] Application for Authorization to Enforce a Garnishee Order against the High Authority of the European Coal and Steel Community,Case 4/62,ECJ,13 March 1962.
[20] Glenn,Kearney and Padilia,“Immunities of International Organizations”,p.277.
[21] J.L.Kunz,“Privileges and Immunities of International Organizations”,(1947)41 American Journal of International Law,p.836.
[22] 《国际联盟盟约》第7条第4段。
[23] C.W.Jenks,The Headquarters of International Institutions:A Study of Their Location and Status(Royal Institute of International Affairs,1945),p.xxxvii.
[24] Charles H.Brower,II,“International Immunities:Some Dissident Views on the Role of Municipal Courts”,(2000)41 Virginia Journal of International Law,pp.15-16.
[25] Linda S.Frey & Marsha L.Frey,The History of Diplomatic Immunity(Ohio State University Press,1999),p.542.
[26] Lawrence Preuss,“The International Organizations Immunities Act”,(1946)40 American Journal of International Law,p.341.
[27] 参见“The United Nations under American Municipal Law:A Preliminary Assessment”,(1946)55 Yale Law Journal,p.781;Brower,“International Immunities:Some Dissident Views on the Role of Municipal Courts”,pp.18-19.
[28] 参见Restatement(Third)of the Foreign Relations Law of the United States,1987,§223 cmt.b,467(1),469 cmt.a;Bekker,The Legal Position of Intergovernmental Organizations,p.111;Thomas J.O’Toole,“Sovereign Immunity Redivivus:Suits Against International Organizations”,(1980)4 Suffolk Transnational Law Journal,p.3;Cathleen Cully,“Jurisdictional Immunities of Intergovernmental Organizations”,(1982)91 Yale Law Journal,p.1181.
[29] Seidl-Hohenveldern,“Failure of Controls in the Sixth International Tin Agreement”,in Niel M.Blokker & Sam Muller(eds.),Towards More Effective Supervision by International Organizations:Essays in Honour of Henry G.Shermers(Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,1994),pp.271-273.
[30] Singer,“Jurisdictional Immunity of International Organizations:Human Rights and Functional Necessity Concerns”,p.136.
[31] Singer,“Jurisdictional Immunity of International Organizations:Human Rights and Functional Necessity Concerns”,pp.137-138.
[32] US Court of Appeals DC Cir,13 July 1967.
[33] Supreme Court,20 June 1986.
[34] National Labour Court,1978,Court of Appeals,1979.在该案中,法院对国际金融性组织的限制性豁免作了广泛的解释。
[35] Singer,“Jurisdictional Immunity of International Organizations:Human Rights and Functional Necessity Concerns”,p.138.
[36] Reinisch,International Organizations before National Courts,pp.361-362.
[37] 1963年《维也纳领事关系公约》第43条和1961年《维也纳外交关系公约》第37条和第38条。
[38] Jonathan Brown,“Diplomatic Immunity:State Practice under the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations”,(1988)37 International and Comparative Law Quarterly,p.76.
[39] US District Court SDNY,16 January 1963.
[40] 214 F.Supp.425 at 431(SDNY 1963).
[41] English Court of Appeal(Civil Division),1 February 1996.
[42] [1996]1 Iloyd’s Reports 589 at 596.
[43] 在《维也纳外交关系公约》的序言中,即“确认此等特权与豁免之目的不在于给予个人以利益而在于确保代表国家之使馆能有效执行职务”。这样一种折中的表达方式很明显地将代表性说与职能必要说相提并论,共同作为外交豁免的理论依据。
[44] 从国际组织高级职员豁免的角度来分析卡恩案,可参见李赞《论国际组织高级职员的豁免》,《环球法律评论》2011年第5期,第156~158页。
[45] Report of the Ad Hoc Committee on criminal accountability of United Nations officials and experts on mission,GAOR,62nd Session,Supplement No.54,U.N.Doc.A/62/54,(April 9-13,2007).
[46] 国际货币基金组织官方网站。最后访问日期:2011年5月17日。
[47] 关于国际组织豁免的放弃问题,可参见李赞《论联合国豁免的放弃》,《时代法学》2011年第1期。