中国在非洲:话语与现实
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三 小结

回到前面萨姆·莫约的发问:今天所谓的新兴市场,本质上是顺从帝国主义的区域稳定力量,还是反抗帝国主义的力量?在我们看来,中国在非洲既是顺从的区域稳定力量,也对垄断资本主义形成了一定的挑战。中国的工业化既包括了毛泽东时代的自主工业化(今天这部分主要体现为国有资本),也包括了改革开放时代的依附性工业化,即通过引进外资形成的融入全球垄断资本产业链的加工工业。今天被西方看成威胁的是前者。中国资本“走出去”是20世纪80年代“请进来”在逻辑上的衍生。“请进来”引进大量外资,使中国迅速成为世界工厂,使经济外向化。在改革开放20年之际,中国已经资本过剩、产能过剩,资本积累遭遇瓶颈,中国资本便开始“走出去” 寻求海外原料和市场。而中国资本“走出去”在时间点上也正是“华盛顿共识”集团利用非洲国家的债务,胁迫非洲国家进行结构调整、开放投资和贸易、变卖国有资产的时候。所以,西方没有料到的是,“华盛顿共识”也为中国资本进入非洲开了大门,中国资本也成为“华盛顿共识”和新自由主义的获益者,尽管西方资本获益更大。因此,中国资本参与了新自由主义的全球化,也是既得利益者。

中国资本同时在某些局部也挑战了西方垄断资本,在有些情况下给非洲国家提供了一些回旋的空间。比如,我们在调研中了解到,当2008年经济危机席卷全球的时候,赞比亚的一些西方铜业公司开始减产、裁员、撤资甚至关门,大量工人失业。中国国企承诺“三不”,即不裁员、不减产、不减投资。中国公司的行为对赞比亚的其他外资起到了一些压力作用,使得赞比亚政府获得了一点跟其他公司谈判的筹码。津巴布韦的土改引发了西方对津巴布韦的制裁,津巴布韦的烟草生产从最好时期的240000吨跌落到40000吨。2005年在津巴布韦农业生产跌到谷底的时候,中国国有烟草公司进入津巴布韦,做了两件事情:一是提高了烟草收购价格,打破了几个烟草巨头对津巴布韦烟草拍卖的垄断,有益于振兴津巴布韦的农业;二是加入订单农业的行列,其他公司提供给烟草种植农户的贷款收取8%~12%的利息,而中国烟草公司提供无息贷款。关于中国和西方国家在非洲作为上的不同,本书在第二、三章有展开的论述。

本书并不是全面地评价中非关系的书。在中非关系中,维和、经济援助、项目融资等方面我们并没有详细涉及。这些方面已经有其他的学者进行研究。

本书的实地调研受到了香港研究资助局的资助。[64]在这些年的实地调研中,我们得到了在非洲的各方人士所给予的慷慨协助,包括分享经历和看法、提供数据、介绍朋友、提供交通便利等,我们心存感激,因为给过支持的人很多,在此实在难以一一具名,为此一并致谢。我们也得益于和很多中外同行的交流,包括和CAAC(“中国人在非洲—非洲人在中国”研究网络)同行的讨论。本书得以出版离不开北京大学非洲研究中心主任李安山教授的支持,以及沈晓雷、许明杰、李怡爽、贾丁、翟辛谊为翻译和校对部分章节付出的辛勤劳动,在此衷心感谢!


[1] Melanie Yap and Diane Leong Man,Color,Confusion and Concession:The History of Chinese in South Africa(Hong Kong:Hong Kong University Press,1996).第6~8页讨论了英国殖民南非之前荷兰开普殖民地(the Dutch Cape Colony,1658~1795)的“自由黑人”。当时所谓的“自由黑人”(Free Blacks)指源于非洲或亚洲的获得自由的一类人。被带去开普殖民地的中国人服刑期满后,如果选择继续留在开普殖民地,他就属于“自由黑人”这一范畴。其中一些“自由黑人”富裕后,也开始蓄奴。1752年,“自由黑人”被赋予和市民一样的权利,但是他们仍然不能和白人平等。在18世纪90年代,如果他们离开城区,仍然需要通行证,而白人则不需要。

[2] Yorimitsu Hashimoto,Yellow Peril Collection of British Novels 1895-1913,in 7 vols.(Tokyo:Edition Synapse,2007);Ariane Knusel,Framing China:Media Images and Political Debates in Britain,the USA,and Switzerland,1900-1950(Burlington:Ashgate,2012).

[3] Sax Rohmer,1913.

[4] 老舍:《二马》,文汇出版社,2008。1911年人口普查显示,英国420万人口中,只有1319名中国人(占外国人的0.5%),但关于“中国人入侵”的言论十分猖獗。吴芳思(Frances Wood):《赫恩山制造》(“Made in Herne Hill”),《泰晤士报文学副刊》2015年1月9日。

[5] Robert E.Howard,“Skull Face” and “Black Cannan,” in Skull Face and Others(Jersey:Neville Spearman,1974).

[6] Ross G.Forman,China and the Victorian Imagination:Empires EntwinedCambridge:Cambridge University Press,2013):130-160;Edlie L.Wong,Racial Reconstruction:Black Inclusion,Chinese Exclusion and the Fictions of Citizenship(New York:New York University Press,2015):124-174.

[7] 此处的材料来自南非比勒陀利亚大学历史学教授Karen Harris的研究分享,在此感谢。

[8] Patrick Bond,“From Racial to Class Apartheid:South Africa’s Frustrating Decade of Freedom,” Monthly Review,55:10(2004),http://monthlyreview.org/2004/03/01/south-africas-frustrating-decade-of-freedom-from-racial-to-class-apartheid/

[9] Yoon Jung Park,A Matter of Honor:Being Chinese in South Africa(New York:Lexinton Books,2008).

[10] Steve Hess,et al.,“Taming the Dragon:Outlining an African Response to Growing Chinese Engagement,” African Insight 40:4(2011):53-67(54).

[11] Godfrey Hampwaye and Peter Kragelund,“Trends in Sino-Zambian Relations,” in Seifudein Adem(ed.),China’s Diplomacy in Eastern and Southern Africa(Farnham:Ashgate,2013):27-39(32).

[12] Steve Hess,et al.,“Taming the Dragon:Outlining an African Response to Growing Chinese Engagement,” African Insight 40:4(2011):53-67(54).

[13] “Obama,on China’s Turf,Presents U.S.as a Better Partner for Africa,” New York Times,July 29,2015.根据《纽约时报》的报道,奥巴马总统在埃塞俄比亚发言时暗指中国说,“但是经济关系不能仅仅是用外国的劳工来建设非洲的基础设施或者是采掘自然资源……真正的经济伙伴必须对非洲好,必须制造就业,给非洲人带来发展能力”,“美国就提供这样的伙伴关系”。

[14] Emma Moseley,“Fu Manchu verses.Dr.Livingstone in the Dark Continent?:Representing China,Africa,and the West in the British Broadsheet Newspaper,” Political Geography 27(2008)509-529.

[15] Barry Sautman and Yan Hairong,“Fu Manchu in Africa?:The Distorted Portrayal of China’s Presence in the Continent,” South African Labor Bulletin,Dec 2007/Jan 2008,Vol 31,no 5,pp.34-38.

[16] “World Investment Report 2015,” UNCTAD:31,http://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/wir2015_en.pdf.

[17] “Do Multinational Promote Better Pay and Working Conditions,” OECD Observer,No.269,Oct. 2008.

[18] Ye Min,“China Invests Overseas:Does the Strong State Help China’s Outbound Investment?” in Kate Zhou,et al.(eds.),Democratization in China,Korea and Southeast Asia?:Local and National Perspectives(London:Routledge,2014):188-199(192).

[19] “World Investment Report 2015,” UNCTAD,Annex Table 08,http://unctad.org/en/pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Annex-Tables.aspx.

[20] “World Investment Report 2015,” UNCTAD,Annex Table 2,http://unctad.org/en/pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Annex-Tables.aspx.

[21] Interview,HaoHonghe,Economic & Commercial Counselor,Chinese Embassy,Khartoum,Dec.25,2007.

[22] David Shambaugh,China Goes Global:the Partial Power(New York:Oxford University Press,2013):177;“Investing Overseas Delivers Dividends,” Thai News Service,Nov.10,2011.

[23] “China Says to Ease Restrictions on Overseas Investments,” CD,Apr.10,2014;“Miners Digging Deep for a New Global Strategy,” CD,Nov.5,2013;“New Wave,” CD,Mar.14,2014;

[24] “Service,Infrastructure Contractors find Fertile Fields in Developing Nations,” CD,Apr.23,2015.

[25] Winslow Robertson and Lina Benabdallah,“China Pledged to Invest $60 Billion in Africa:Here’s What that Means,” Washington PostMonkey Cage,Jan.7,2016,www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2016/01/07/china-pledged-to-invest-60-billion-in-africa-heres-what-that-means/.

[26] “Belt and Road Initiative Spurs China’s Outward Investment Programme,” Hong Kong Trade Development Commission,Nov.11,2015,www.beltandroad.hk/en/market-analyses/20151111-belt-and-road-initiative-spurs-china-s-outward-investment-programme.aspx.

[27] Chen Wenjie,et al.,“Chinese Direct Investment in Africa;Reality and Myth,” Brookings Institution,Sept.3,2015,www.brookings.edu/blogs/africa-in-focus/posts/2015/09/03-china-africa-investment-trade-myth-chen-dollar-tang.

[28] “Chinese Investment in Africa Falls by 40%,” Voice of America,Nov.25,2015.

[29] MiriaPigato and Tang Wenxia,“China and Africa:Expanding Economic Ties in an Evolving Global Context,” Investing in Africa Forum,Mar. 2015:10,www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/.

[30] Carien du Plessis,“Is Chinese Investment in Africa 1% or Less of their Investments Globally?” Africacheck,Dec.4,2015,https://africacheck.org/reports/is-chinese-investment-in-africa-1-or-less-of-their-investments-globally/.

[31] ““Western Countries Lead Foreign Direct Investment into Africa,” Financial Times(UK),Oct.6,2015.

[32] “The Rise of the BRICs FDI and Africa,” UN Conference on Trade and Development:7,2013,http://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/webdiaeia2013d6_en.pdf;“Malaysia,not China,is Asia’s Top Investor in Africa,” Reuters,Mar.25,2013.

[33] Katarina Pereira da Costa,“Direct Investment Flows between South America and Africa,” Redlatn.org,2015:1,www10.iadb.org/intal/intalcdi/PE/2015/15474.pdf.

[34] “Frontier Markets in Africa:Misperceptions in a Sea of Opportunities,” United Nations Economic Commission on Africa,2014:10,www.uneca.org/sites/default/files/PublicationFiles/africa_frontier_paper.pdf.

[35] “Not as Easy as it Looks,” Economist,Nov.21,2015.

[36] “World Investment Report 2015,” UNCTAD,Annex Table 3,http://unctad.org/en/pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Annex-Tables.aspx

[37] Li Bo,“African Invest Billions of Dollars in China,” Africa Report,June 18,2015.

[38] Huang Guobo,“Both Sides Must Keep Up with the Times,” China Daily,Aug.9,2013.

[39] “China-Africa Trade and Investment Report,” TUSIAD,2013,www.tusiad.org.tr/__rsc/shared/file/ChinaBusinessInsight-September-2013.pdf.

[40] National Bureau of Statistics of the People’s Republic of China,State Administration of Foreign Exchange,2013 Statistical Bulletin of China’s Outward Foreign Direct Investment(Beijing:China Statistics Press,2014).

[41] Interview,Zhang Shudong,Counselor,Economic Section,Chinese Embassy,Lusaka,July 10,2008.

[42] “China’s investment in African resources ‘Still at an Early Stage and on a Clear Path,’ says Standard Bank Group,” Standard Bank,Feb.26,205,www.standardbank.com/Article.aspx?id=-374&src=#sthash.UMnARrLj.dpuf.

[43] Shen Xiaofang,“Private Chinese Investment in Africa:Myths and Realities,” Development Policy Review 33:1(2015):83-106(87-88).

[44] Interview,Zhang Shudong,Counselor,Economic Section,Chinese Embassy,Lusaka,July 20,2007.

[45] Li Jinping,China Geo-Engineering Co.(CGC),Zambia Branch,Lusaka,Sept.11,2008.

[46] Lauren Johnston,“Boom to Cusp:Prospecting the ‘New Normal’ in China and Africa,” in Song Ligang,et al.,(eds.)China’s Domestic Transformation in a Global Context(Canberra:Australian National University Press):383-408(389).

[47] Lite Nartey and Stephen Mezias,“Chinese Investment in Africa:Avenues for Academic Scholarship,” in IfidapoAdeleye,et al.(eds.),The Changing Dynamics of International Business in Africa(New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2015):52-75(70).

[48] AmadouSy,“Three Trends in Indo-African Trade and Investment,” Brookings,Oct.23,2015,www.brookings.edu/blogs/africa-in-focus/posts/2015/10/23-trends-indo-african-trade-investment-sy.

[49] Kenneth Agutamba,“Industries-Is ‘Chinese Therapy’ Continent’s Answer to Stunted Growth?” NT,July 3,2015.

[50] Pigato and Tang,China in Africa:7,11-12-17.2015/06/26/090224b082f979c9/2_0/Rendered/PDF/China0and0Afri0lving0global0context.pdf.

[51] David Pillig,“Africa’s Ties with China are about More than Raw Materials,” Financial Times,Oct.5,2015.

[52] “Africa’s Exports to China Plummet Nearly 40pc in 2015,”,Business Daily(Kenya),Jan.13,2016.

[53] Pigato and Tang,China and Africa:5.

[54] “Commodity Price Falls a $160 Billion Bonus for China,” Agence France Presse,Jan.13,2016.

[55] “Africa’s Exports to China Plummet Nearly 40pc in 2015,”,Business Daily(Kenya),Jan.13,2016.

[56] Tehima Khan,“Linkages between China and Sub-Saharan Africa,” in World Bank,Global Economic Prospects,2015:4,www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/GEP/GEP2015b/Global-Economic-Prospects-June-2015-China-and-Sub-Saharan-Africa.pdf.

[57] Pigato and Tang,China and Africa:5-6,8.

[58] Santosh Kumar Singh,“India-Africa Summit:a Milestone toward Strategic Relationship,” Bharat Niti,Oct.31,2015,www.bharatniti.in/story/india-africa-summit-a-milestone-towards-strategic-relationship/88.

[59] Sy,Three Trends.

[60] Addie Offiong,“‘Africans Order for Low Quality Products from China”’Daily Trust(Nigeria),Dec.7,2015.

[61] Khan,Linkages:5.

[62] Ofeibea Quist-Act,” Chinese-built Zambian smelter stirs controversy,” National Public Radio,31 July 2008,http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=93081721on.

[63] 第一章(翻译)原文信息East Mountain Tiger,West Mountain Tiger:China,Africa,the West and “Colonialism”,Maryland Monograph Series in Contemporary Asian Studies(Baltimore:University of Maryland School of Law),No.186 Number 3-2006(186)。第二章原文信息:“Friends and Interests:China’s Distinctive Links with Africa.” African Studies Review 50(3):75-114。第三章原文信息:“The Forest for the Trees:Trade,Investment,and the China-in-Africa Discourse,” Pacific Affairs 81(1):9-29。第四章原文信息:“African Perspectives on China-Africa Links,” China Quarterly 199(September):729-760。第五章原文信息:“Chasing Ghosts:Rumors and Representations of the Export of Chinese Prisoners to Developing Countries,” China Quarterly 210(June):398-418。第六章原文信息:“Bashing the Chinese:Contextualizing Zambia’s Collum Coal Mine Shooting,” Journal of Contemporary China 23:1073-1092。第七章原文信息:“Chinese Farms in Zambia:From Socialist to ‘Agro-Imperialist’ Engagement?” African and Asian Studies 9:307-333。第八章原文信息:“The Chinese Defilement Case:Racial Profiling in an African ‘Model of Democracy’,” Rutgers Race and the Law Review 14(1):87-134。第九章原文信息:“‘The Beginning of a World Empire’?:Contesting the Discourse of Chinese Copper Mining in Zambia,” Modern China 39(2):131-164。

[64] 香港研究资助局资助了两个与本书相关的研究:“当代中非关系的政治经济研究”(2005-2008),“本地化与全球化:从比较的视野看中国企业在非洲”(2013-2016)。