III. Great Pioneers Leading the Chinese Nation Towards Rejuvenation
The CPC manifested its nature of being “two vanguards” in leading the people to salvage the nation from subjugation and leading the Chinese nation towards rejuvenation.
Numerous Chinese Communists as leaders of national rejuvenation were among the most brilliant stars of the unique Chinese civilization since the Opium Wars. As the heroes of the nation and elite of its civilization, they took on the responsibility of national rejuvenation by upholding the great traditions of Chinese culture and inheriting the wisdom and breadth of the spirit of their predecessors.
The early Communists, whether Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao or Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai, were born and nurtured in traditional culture, and themselves politicians versed in both traditional Chinese culture and Marxist theory. They conscientiously regarded it as their duty to save the country and the people, evolving from patriots to Communists. They were well equipped with Marxist theory and practice and a rich knowledge of history. After the founding of the CPC, they were still patriots with a profound traditional cultural upbringing.
The following are their profiles.
Li Dazhao, the earliest disseminator of Marxism in China, was also one of the founders of the CPC. After graduating from Beiyang School of Law and Political Science, he furthered his studies in political economy in Waseda University in Japan. At the end of 1917, he was hired to be head of the library at Peking University and later became a professor of economics and history. He also served as an editor of New Youth. As a staunch advocate of democracy and a leading intellectual in the New Culture Movement, he condemned China's traditional culture, enclosed for thousands of years, and criticized its eight drawbacks in modern society, which he attributed to the feudal ethics represented by Confucius, a manifestation of his firm objection to feudal autocracy. In the meantime, Li Dazhao held a firm belief in China's long-lasting civilization: “Its true value is highly recognized… we are convinced of the national revival…it might be the second greatest contribution to world civilization.”17 He also proposed to study democracy, freedom and scientific spirit from the West, selectively “learning their strengths to help revitalize our civilization”. His pursuit of advanced culture resulted in his attention to the Bolshevik Revolution (October Revolution) and belief in socialism. He predicted that “the world in the future will be dominated by red communism.”18
After the October Revolution, Li Dazhao published articles and speeches such as “Comparison of French and Russian Revolutions”,“People's Victory”, “Victory of Bolshevism”, and “New Epoch”, eulogizing the October Revolution, and believing it gave hope to China's national independence and liberation. Li Dazhao was actively involved and became a leader of the May 4th Movement, devoting himself to the dissemination of Marxism. He published “My View on Marxism”, systematically introducing Marxist theory, initiating seminars on Marxism, taking the lead to establish early organizations of the CPC and Beijing Communist Youth League, and helping to set up Communist organizations across the country. After the founding of the CPC, Li Dazhao guided the Party's work in northern China on behalf of the Central Committee, organized the workers’ movement, and made important contributions to the first KMT-CPC cooperation and the fight against imperialists and warlords. On April 28, 1927, he was killed and died a hero's death in a prison of the Northern Warlords.
As a great trailblazer disseminating and applying Marxism in China, Li Dazhao made it clear that Marxism was the truth of our era, and the“guide to save China”19, and actively used it to guide China's workers’movement. He devoted himself to the dissemination and application of Marxism, “braving all difficulties, doing his utmost and even willing to sacrifice his own life”20. He also quickly recognized that Marxism was science rather than abstract theories or dogma, and a full understanding of Marxism must be based on the study of how to apply it to China's political and economic reality.21 It should suit itself to changing circumstances such as time, place and course of events. We should see it as our responsibility to develop it in the process of application and concrete actions.22
Li Dazhao was passionate in his efforts towards national rejuvenation. On February 19 and April 18, 1917, he published “New Chinese Nationalism” and then “Pan-Asianism” in Jiayin, an equivalent of the Spectator in Britain, refuting the Pan-Asianism preached by Japan advocating the predominance of the Japanese nation. He proposed that the Chinese should bring forth a greater union of different ethnic groups underlying the New Chinese Nationalism to transform the ancient Chinese nation and benefit the oriental world. He said, “Our nation, with the longest history in Asia, has formed through the merging of different ethnic groups on its territory, assimilated into the Chinese nation because of its tolerance. It was regrettable that there was still distinction between five ethnic groups when the Republic was founded. But in my opinion, they are now being assimilated into one and coexist peacefully in the free and equal republic. There is no longer a clear difference between the Manchu, Han, Mongol, Hui, Tibetan, and even Miao and Yao ethnic groups. They all belong to the Republic of China and the new Chinese nation. The laws and regulations to be enacted in the future should take this into consideration to boost national spirit and unify national thinking. This is what the New Chinese Nationalism stands for.”23
Chen Duxiu, leader of the May 4th Movement and New Culture Movement, was also one of the founders of the CPC. On September 15,1915, he founded the La Jeunesse (New Youth) magazine as a champion of democracy and science. He was then a radical democrat. After the May 4th Movement, Chen Duxiu championed the revolutionary slogan of“reforming the social system via class struggle”24 and the development path “from feudalism to republicanism and socialism”.25 In response to the rejection and attacks on the spread of Marxism by all trends of thought, Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao defended Marxism and jointly criticized pragmatism, reformism and anarchism.
Chen Duxiu played a unique role in the founding of the CPC. Through his efforts, progressive intellectuals across the country gradually assembled into a Marxist camp, offering a pool of would-be officials for the founding of the CPC. He was elected general secretary of the CPC Central Bureau at the First CPC National Congress, chairman of the second and third Central Executive Committees, and general secretary of the fourth and fifth CPC Central Committees. In November 1922, he attended the Fourth World Congress of the Communist International on behalf of the CPC and was elected an executive member. At this conference, he enunciated that the CPC should insist on its own independent political line, commit itself to mobilizing the public to fight international imperialism and domestic feudalism, and rely on the people to establish a truly independent people's republic. It was under the leadership of Chen Duxiu that the Second CPC National Congress produced an accurate analysis of China as a semi-feudal and semi-colonial country, and defined the anti-imperialist and anti-feudal program of democratic revolution.
Instructed by the Communist International, Chen Duxiu, the general secretary of the CPC, made mistakes in leading the Chinese revolution when he failed to recognize the KMT's betrayal. He was also regarded by many as a leader who criticized and even rejected traditional Chinese culture in favor of new culture. It should be noted that his negation of traditional Chinese culture was attributed to his preference for Western culture. But generally speaking, Chen Duxiu was a patriot on the issue of culture. His criticism of traditional culture was targeted at the feudal autocracy and its ethical code, while he attempted to enlighten the people, salvage the nation, and realize national revival. In addition, his thinking evolved and became more progressive. His article “Patriotism and Consciousness”, published in the name of Duxiu, for the first time expressed his patriotic stance. After becoming a Marxist, he was a patriot devoted to saving the nation.
Mao Zedong, one of the CPC's founders, became the core of the first generation of the central collective leadership of the Party at the Zunyi Meeting held in 1935. He finally turned to Marxism to save the nation after comparing all schools of thought, and came to realize in the revolution that China's reality must be the frame of reference in adapting Marxism to solve China's problems independently. After a sober analysis of China's national conditions, he defined a revolutionary path of using rural areas to encircle the cities and win the final victory across the country, established a new democratic theory, and formulated the roadmap for a new democratic revolution. Under the leadership of the CPC with Mao Zedong as the core, Chinese people overthrew the rule of imperialism, feudalism and bureaucrat capitalism through 22 years of arduous armed struggle, won victory in the new democratic revolution, and founded the People's Republic of China. This helped to realize the long-held desire for national independence and people's liberation. It brought China's leap to people's democracy, China's unification, and unprecedented solidarity; it put an end to China's status as a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society, the state of disunity, and unequal treaties imposed by foreign powers and their privileges in China. A new era was unveiled. After the founding of the PRC, Mao Zedong peacefully transformed agriculture, handicrafts, and capitalist industry and commerce in an innovative manner, completing the transition from democratic revolution to socialist revolution and leading China into the socialist society. He also explored the right path for socialist development by drawing on the experience and lessons of the Soviet Union, accumulating experience and creating conditions for building socialism with Chinese characteristics.
Mao Zedong was a great Marxist and also a great national hero. He believed that the Chinese would change from being passive to being proactive after embracing Marxism-Leninism. The era in modern history when the Chinese people and culture were looked down upon would come to an end. The people's liberation war and revolution had rejuvenated the Chinese culture. Back in 1938, while proposing to adapt Marxism to the Chinese context, he emphasized that we should summarize and profit from China's precious heritage from Confucius to Sun Yatsen. Therefore, creating and developing localized Marxism was a priority in developing the new culture of the Chinese nation.
In the article “On New Democracy”, Mao Zedong pointed out, “Our Communists have fought not only for China's political and economic revolution, but also for its cultural revolution.” “Developing a new culture of the Chinese nation is our aim in the cultural sector.” He made it clear in his interview with British journalist Guenther Stain in 1944, “Our belief in Marxism as a correct thinking does not mean that we would neglect China's cultural legacy and Non-Marxist thoughts in the West …Building on the traditional thinking in China and being open to foreign ideas does not mean we would copy them blindly, rather we must apply and adapt them to China's reality. Our attitude is to accept our historical legacy and foreign thinking in a critical manner. We oppose blind acceptance of any ideas and blind resistance of any ideas. We Chinese must think on our own and decide what could develop on our own soil.”26 The American scholar Raymond F. Wylie wrote in his book The Emergence of Maoism that Mao Zedong, reading thread-bound books about traditional culture all through his life, succeeded in adapting Marxism to the Chinese context and made communism a prevailing thought replacing Confucianism, accepted by the public.27
While inheriting traditional Chinese culture, Mao Zedong transformed and refined it, and instilled it with new life. For example, people-oriented thought was an important concept in traditional Chinese culture. Mencius once put forward the idea that “of the first importance are the people, next comes the good of land and grain, and of the least importance is the ruler.” Mao Zedong raised this to a new height of historical materialism, emphasizing that “the people, and the people alone, are the motive force of world history.”28 He asked officials to have faith in the people, rely on them, embrace the mass line, and serve the people wholeheartedly, making it the fundamental purpose of the Party and an important part of Marxism adapted to the Chinese context.
Zhou Enlai, one of the founders of the CPC, also developed from a patriot to a Marxist. He went to Japan to further his studies after graduating from Nankai Middle School in 1917. In the process of seeking ideas and means to save the country and the people, he came into contact with Marxism. In 1921, he joined the CPC, and was elected leader of the European Branch of the Communist Youth League and the Chinese Communist Party. On August 1, 1927, he led the Nanchang Uprising. In 1949, after the founding of the PRC, he served as the premier of the State Council.
As both the Premier and Minister of Foreign Affairs following the founding of the PRC, Zhou Enlai was also a politician of great international influence. From January 9, 1976 (the second day after his death) to January 15 (the day of his funeral), to mourn his death, the United Nations flew a flag at half-mast for seven days for the first time. Zhou Enlai's efforts in diplomacy throughout his life had a fundamental influence on international politics and helped to enhance China's international standing. In 1953, he propounded the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence which became the norms governing the relationships between countries.
He proposed the principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences at the Bandung Conference which was echoed by participating countries, a positive effort to make the meeting a success. With his remarkable work and the efforts of many other Chinese diplomats, China won the overwhelming support of countries from the third world and hence resumed its legitimate seat at the UN in 1971. Sino-US and Sino-Japan relationships were normalized in 1972. As a politician with a traditional Chinese upbringing, Zhou Enlai's noble character traits such as being approachable, considerate, and trustworthy, and his integrity, modesty, patience and elegance left a deep impression on world politicians and diplomats. Nixon once remarked: “His elegant demeanor, upright yet relaxed posture revealed his glamourous and moderate personality. He managed to stick to his own personality while maintaining political harmony, a long-established practice in China. Zhou Enlai's hospitality, candidness, seriousness and sincerity are impressive.”29
Zhou Enlai once said: Only by building on and developing the great traditional culture bequeathed to us by our ancestors, can we create a new socialist culture serving the political, economic and cultural needs of socialism, and make the people “relish the new culture”.30
Qu Qiubai was one of the early leaders of the CPC. On January 29,1899, he was born in Changzhou, Jiangsu Province. He was a member of the research society for Marxist theory founded by Li Dazhao. In October 1920, he was sent to Moscow as a correspondent to report from Moscow about life in Russia and spread the experience of the October Revolution and Marxism-Leninism to China. In 1922, he joined the CPC in Moscow. After he came back from Russia in 1923, he worked as the editor-in-chief of an official publication responsible for the dissemination of Marxism-Leninism. From 1925, he was elected as Central Committee member, Central Bureau member, and Political Bureau member at the fourth, fifth and sixth national Party congresses, becoming one of the most important leaders of the CPC. At the critical moment of the failure of the Great Revolution, Qu Qiubai presided over the August 7th Conference in 1927 in the capacity of temporary standing committee member of the Central Political Bureau, and set out the general principles for the Agrarian Revolution and armed struggle against the reactionary rule of the KMT. In 1928, Qu went to Moscow once again, presided over the Sixth CPC National Congress, at which he was elected a member of the Central Political Bureau, and worked as the head of the CPC delegation to the Communist International for two years. Qu returned to China in 1930 only to be sidelined from the central leadership dominated by Wang Ming and turned to cultural research, studying Marxist cultural theory. He was arrested on his way to Changting, Fujian Province in 1934 and was executed on June 18 that year.
Qu Qiubai propounded that “it is of great urgency to apply Marxism to China's national conditions.”31 He had made the mistake of blindly applying the Communist International's directives to China, though he was still on the whole a man of independent thinking. He was a patriot with a traditional Chinese upbringing and at the same time devoted himself to the systematic study of Marxist philosophy and social sciences. He stressed we should apply the Marxist standpoint, view and approach to solving real problems, and it would be hard for China's national revolution to win victory without the participation of peasants who made up more than 70% of China's population. He also said China's peasants were very revolutionary, and the proletariat must ensure land to the tillers through political power to remove their economic shackles, organize peasants’ self-defense corps, and carry out armed struggle to establish a revolutionary government. He also highlighted the necessity of seizing leadership on the cultural front. He believed that every country should have its ideological authority, and the intelligentsia should be the beacon in this field. Therefore, to carry out cultural revolution, the intelligentsia must be united to realize the overall revolutionary goal of the proletariat.
In conclusion, the CPC was born in the process of salvaging the nation from subjugation and acted as “two vanguards” in undertaking the mission of national rejuvenation. The early leaders of the CPC, as the pioneers leading the Chinese nation towards rejuvenation, were great patriots with a profound traditional cultural upbringing. This determined that the CPC would faithfully build on and develop traditional Chinese culture from the moment it was founded.
1 National Archives of China: Selected Documents of the CPC Central Committee, Vol. 1, Party School of the CPC Central Committee Press, 1989, p. 3.
2 Mao Zedong: Manuscripts of Mao Zedong Since the Founding of the PRC, Vol. 7, Central Party Literature Publishing House, 1992, p. 296.
3 National Archives of China: Selected Documents of the CPC Central Committee, Vol. 1, Party School of the CPC Central Committee Press, 1989, p. 114.
4 National Archives of China: Selected Documents of the CPC Central Committee, Vol. 1, Party School of the CPC Central Committee Press, 1989, pp. 44-45.
5 National Archives of China: Selected Documents of the CPC Central Committee, Vol. 10, Party School of the CPC Central Committee Press, 1991, p. 618.
6 National Archives of China: Selected Documents of the CPC Central Committee, Vol. 1, Party School of the CPC Central Committee Press, 1989, p. 620.
7 Xi Jinping: Secure a Decisive Victory in Building a Moderately Prosperous Society in All Respects and Strive for the Great Success of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era – Report Delivered at the 19th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, People's Publishing House, 2017, p. 13.
8 Xi Jinping: Secure a Decisive Victory in Building a Moderately Prosperous Society in All Respects and Strive for the Great Success of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era – Report Delivered at the 19th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, People's Publishing House, 2017, p. 13.
9 Marx and Engels: Works of Marx and Engels, Vol. I, Progress Publishers, 1969, https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/ch01.htm#007.
10 Kang Youwei: Collection of Kang Youwei's Political Essays, Zhonghua Book Company, 1981, p. 298.
11 Marx and Engels: Works of Marx and Engels, Vol. 1, 1995, p. 692, https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1853/06/14.htm.
12 Teaching and Research Office on China's History of Political Thought in Modern and Contemporary Times of Renmin University: References of the History of Political Thought in Modern China,China Renmin University Press, 1980, p. 107.
13 Kang Youwei: Collection of Kang Youwei's Political Essays, Vol. 1, Zhonghua Book Company, 1981, p.339.
14 Sun Yat-sen Research Office of the Department of History of Sun Yat-sen University, History Research Institute of Guangdong Academy of Social Sciences, and ROC History Research Office of the Institute of Modern History of Chinese Academy of Social Sciences: Complete Works of Sun Yat-sen, Vol. 5, Zhonghua Book Company, 1985, p. 210.
15 Mao Zedong: “On the People's Democratic Dictatorship”, Selected Works of Mao Zedong, Vol. IV, Foreign Languages Press, 1961, p. 431.
16 Xi Jinping: Speech at the Conference Celebrating the 95th Anniversary of the Founding of the CPC, People's Publishing House, 2016, p. 2.
17 Li Dazhao: Collected Works of Li Dazhao, Vol. 1, People's Publishing House, 1984, p. 562.
18 Li Dazhao: Complete Works of Li Dazhao, Vol. 2, People's Publishing House, 2006, p. 367.
19 Li Dazhao: Collected Works of Li Dazhao, Vol. 2, People's Publishing House, 1984, p. 712.
20 Li Dazaho: Selected Works of Li Dazhao, People's Publishing House, 1959, p. 64.
21 Li Dazhao: Collected Works of Li Dazhao, Vol. 2, People's Publishing House, 1984, p. 712.
22 Li Dazhao: Collected Works of Li Dazhao, Vol. 3, People's Publishing House, 1999, p. 3.
23 Li Dazhao: Complete Works of Li Dazhao, Vol. 2, People's Publishing House, 2006, pp. 493-495.
24 Chen Duxiu: Collected Works of Chen Duxiu, Vol. 2, People's Publishing House, 2013, p. 47.
25 Chen Duxiu: Collected Works of Chen Duxiu, Vol. 2, People's Publishing House, 2013, p. 58.
26 Mao Zedong: Collected Works of Mao Zedong, Vol. III, People's Publishing House, 1996, pp. 191-192.
27 Shang Qingfei: Overseas Study on Mao Zedong, Jiangsu People's Publishing House, 2008, p. 311.
28 Mao Zedong: “On Coalition Government”, Selected Works of Mao Zedong, Vol. III, Foreign Languages Press, 1965, p. 257.
29 Richard Nixon: The Collected Works of Richard Nixon: Leaders, World Affairs Press, 1998, p. 261.
30 Party Literature Research Office of the CPC Central Committee: Selected Writings of Zhou Enlai,Central Party Literature Publishing House, 1998, p. 84.
31 Qu Qiubai: Selected Works of Qu Qiubai, People's Publishing House. 1985, p. 311.