六、美国的“线人法”
有关线人的法律体现了一个国家在重大问题上的立场:政府究竟应当在多大程度上容忍犯罪?对警察权力限制的合理范围是什么?对个人隐私应给予多大程度的保障?每个国家的“线人法”都反映了该国立法、司法、行政权力以及公共价值的融合。美国的立法和司法部门在这一问题上以将权力移交给行政执法部门而闻名。正如马克斯教授(Professor Marx)多年前指出的那样:“与一些西欧国家或日本不同,美国的立法机构一直没有为警方的工作表现设定标准和目标,这一事实间接地支持了警方利用线人的行为。立法机关和法院一样,一般都喜欢把这类事情交给警方处理,如此就默认了其合法性。”[99]因此,美国使用线人的法哲学与国际社会的差异巨大,它赋予行政机关极大的执法权和自由裁量权,其带来的危险远远超过了使用线人带来的危险和对司法权威的侵蚀。
本章介绍的是美国“线人法”的总体情况,在使用和奖励线人方面,美国的官方拥有巨大的自由裁量权和执法权,这些权力几乎没有任何法律限制。既有的限制措施往往集中在政府的信息披露义务上,而不是对政府使用线人的方式进行实质性控制,甚至这些披露信息的义务也只与不经常发生的诉讼和正式审判有关。这种放任自流、不受监管的做法最终只会导致美国的线人活动由警方和检察官的个人意志单独塑造,几乎没有外部控制,也几乎没有司法监督、立法监督或社会公众监督。[100]
67
注释:
[1] United States v. Dennis, 183 F.2d 201(2nd Cir.1950), aff'd 341 U.S.494(1951).
[2] Peter Reuter, “Licensing Criminals: Police and Informants,” in Gerald M.Caplan, ed., ABSCAM Ethics: Moral Issues and Deception in Law Enforcement(Cambridge, MA: Ballinger, 1983), 100—117(描述线人被准许为各种类型的犯罪活动的情况); Jerome H.Skolnick, Justice without Trial: Law Enforcement in Democratic Society(New York: Wiley, 1966), 129; Amanda J.Schreiber, “Dealing with the Devil: An Examination of the FBI's Troubled Relationship with Its Confidential Informants,” 34 Colum.J.L.& Soc.Probs.301(2000)。
[3] Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S.436(1966); Rhode Island v. Innis, 446 U.S.291(1980); Berkemer v. McCarty, 468 U.S.420(1984).
[4] 参见Massiah v. United States,377 U.S.201(1964)。
[5] United States v. White, 2004 WL 2182188, *4(D.Kan.2004).
[6] Town of Castle Rock v. Gonzalez, 125 S.Ct.2796(2005)(对没有执行家庭暴力禁止令的警察找不到任何诉讼因由); see also DeShaney v. Winnebago County Dep't of Soc.Servs., 489 U.S.189(1989)(找不到任何最低安全级别的宪法保障); see also Joseph Goldstein, “Police Discretion Not to Invoke the Criminal Process: Low-Visibility Decisions in the Administration of Justice,” 69 Yale L.J.543(1960); Reuter, “Licensing Criminals: Police and Informants,” at 101(描述警方许可犯罪的裁量权)。
[7] Section 608, Eureka Police Department, “Confidential Informants” Policy, submitted in response to Freedom of Information Act request by the ACLU of Northern California, filed with the California Commission on the Fair Administration of Justice, at 57(Sept.19, 2006)(available at www.ccfaj.org/documents/reports/jailhouse/expert/ACLU%20Letter%20re%20Informants-Exhibits.pdf).
[8] Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department, Informants and Associated Funds Management, section 5/206.24.
[9] Department of Justice Guidelines Regarding the Use of Confidential Informants, at 3—4, 14(Jan.8, 2001)(available at www.usdoj.gov/ag/readingroom/ciguidelines.htm)(“DOJ Guidelines”); Attorney General Guidelines Regarding the Use of FBI Confidential Human Sources, at 5—7, 27, 30, 34—35(Dec.13, 2006)(available at www.fas.org/irp/agency/doj/fbi/chs-guidelines.pdf)(“FBI Guidelines”).
[10] Daniel Richman, “Prosecutors and Their Agents, Agents and Their Prosecutors,” 103 Columbia L.Rev.749(2003).
[11] United States v. Abcasis,45 F.3d 39,43(2d Cir.1995).
[12] Fed.R.Crim.P.12.3.(要求被告“打算在指控的犯罪发生时代表执法机构或联邦情报机构为实际或据信行使公共权力进行辩护”,必须在审判前书面通知政府。)
[13] United States v. Henry,447 U.S.264(1980)(当监狱告密者故意从被告那里获取信息时,这就侵犯了被告的辩护律师权)。 See also ABA Model Rule of Professional Conduct 4.2(禁止律师与有律师代表的被告交谈)。
[14] Imbler v. Pachtman,424 U.S.409(1976).
[15] See United States v. Williams,47 F.3d 658(4th Cir.1995).(在认罪谈判期间,如果被告拒绝与警方合作,检察官可能威胁要指控被告犯有更严重的罪行,并将这些威胁付诸实施。)
[16] See 18 U.S.C.§6002(联邦豁免法); Murphy v. Waterfront Commission,378 U.S.52,77—79(1964)(州法定豁免权的授予也保护了与联邦起诉有关的被告。); cf.State v. Edmondson,714 So.2d 1233(La.1998)(合作被告在密西西比州承诺的豁免权在路易斯安那州无拘束力)。
[17] United States v. Pollard,959 F.2d 1011,1021(D.C.Cir.1992).(“几乎任何在检察官出于善意行事的权力范围内的合法行为都可以用来换取认罪。”)
[18] 参见第一章。
[19] Daniel Richman,“Cooperating Clients,” 56 Ohio St.L.J.69,94—99(1995); Graham Hughes,“Agreements for Cooperation in Criminal Cases,” 45 Vand.L.Rev.1(1992).
[20] Roberts v. United States,445 U.S.552(1980)(维持判决,部分是基于被告拒绝提供关于他人的有罪信息而得以强化);Bordenkirsher v. United States,434 U.S.357(1978)(为了使被告认罪,政府可能会指控被告犯有更严重的罪行); see also United States v. Williams,47 F.3d at 661。
[21] Meda Chesney-Lind,“Imprisoning Women: The Unintended Victims of Mass Imprisonment,” in Marc Mauer & Meda Chesney-Lind,eds., Invisible Punishment: The Collateral Consequences of Mass Imprisonment(New York: New Press,2002),90.
[22] United States v. Armstrong,517 U.S.456(1996); Thigpen v. Roberts,468 U.S.27(1984).
[23] 参见,e.g.,State v. Williams,896 A.2d 973,976,392 Md.194(2006).(由于在毒品案件中的合作,这名监狱告密者只是以盗窃罪被起诉,并被撤销了许多其他指控。)
[24] Parrish v. State,12 P.3d 953,956 & n.5(Nev.2000)(注意内华达州、佛罗里达州和佐治亚州授予合作保证的法律规定)。
[25] 2007 Annual Report,Virginia Criminal Sentencing Commission(Richmond,VA: VCSC,2007),138(available at www.vcsc.state.va.us/2007VCSCReport.pdf).
[26] But see Melanie Wilson,“Prosecutors ‘Doing Justice’ through Osmosis: Reminders to Encourage a Culture of Cooperation,” 45 Am.Crim.L.Rev.67(2008)(辩称合作“未得到充分利用”,检察官应该更多地依赖合作来处理案件)。
[27] Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics Online,U.S.Dep't of Justice,Bureau of Justice Statistics,tbl.5.36.2006(2006)(available at www.albany.edu/sourcebook/pdf/t5362006.pdf).
[28] Linda Drazga Maxfield & John H.Kramer,“Substantial Assistance: An Empirical Yardstick Gauging Equity in Current Federal Policy and Practice,” United States Sentencing Commission(Jan.1998),9—10(available at www.ussc.gov/publicat/5kreport.pdf); Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics Online,tbl.5.36.2006,U.S.Dep't of Justice,Bureau of Justice Statistics(2006)(available at www.albany.edu/sourcebook/pdf/t5362006.pdf).
[29] 18 U.S.C.§3553(e).
[30] 21 U.S.C.§841(b)(1)(B)(iii).
[31] 唯一的例外是根据《美国法典》第5C1.2条,初犯可能有资格获得较低的刑期。
[32] U.S.S.G.§5K1.1.
[33] Wade v. United States,504 U.S.181(1992)(根据美国量刑指导,政府动议需要允许法院考虑被告的合作)。
[34] United States v. Booker,543 U.S.220(2005); Gall v. United States,128 S.Ct.586(2007); Kimbrough v. United States,128 S.Ct.558(2007).
[35] Gall,128 S.Ct. at 596.
[36] 参见,United States v. Doe,398 F.3d 1254,1261(10th Cir.2005).(“地区法院在宣判时应充分考虑被告的提供的帮助,即使这种帮助不是以§5K1.1规定的形式提交给法院的。”)
[37] Radley Balko,“Guilty before Proven Innocent: How police harassment,jailhouse snitches,and a runaway war on drugs imprisoned an innocent family,” Reason Magazine,vol.40,no.1,May 2008,at 51—52.
[38] Mark Curriden,“The Informant Trap: Secret Threat to Justice,” 17 Nat'l Law J.1(1995).
[39] 28 U.S.C.§524(c); Joaquin J.Alemany,“United States Contracts with Informants: An Illusory Promise?” 33 U.Miami Inter-Am.L.Rev.251(2002).
[40] Roy v. United States,38 Fed.Cl.184(1997).
[41] 参见Letter from Russell E.Perdock,Chief Deputy,Lake County Sheriff's Dept.,to Maya Harris,ACLU of Northern California,May 30,2006(available at www.ccfaj.org/rr-use-expert.html)(提供用于支付举报人的样本凭证);Beth Warren,“Kathryn Johnston Shooting: Informant hiding out,plans to sue city,police,”Atlanta Journal-Constitution,April 28,2007,at 1B(描述本地线人付款方式的安排)。
[42] Richard Rosenfeld,Bruce Jacobs & Richard Wright,“Snitching and the Code of the Street,” 43 Brit.J.Criminol.291,303(2003); Jay Williams & L.Lynn Guess,“The Informant: A Narcotics Enforcement Dilemma,” 13 J.Psychoactive Drugs 235(1981)(noting that law enforcement provision of drugs to addict informants creates an ethical conflict); Stephen L.Mallory, Informants: Development and Management(Incline Village,NV: Copperhouse Publishing,2000),81(注意到线人可能会从被限制的交易中掠夺金钱和/或毒品)。
[43] Terry v. Ohio,392 U.S.1(1968); Rhode Island v. Innis,446 U.S.291(1980); Massiah v. United States,377 U.S.201(1964).
[44] Title III,Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act,18 U.S.C.§§2510 et seq.(规制电子监控);State v. Mullens,650 S.E.2d 169(2007)(描述国家法定计划);“Electronic Surveillance: Annual Review of Criminal Procedure,” 36 Geo.L.J.A.R.133,157(2007)。
[45] Hoffa v. United States,385 U.S.293,303,311(1966).
[46] Illinois v. Perkins,496 U.S.292(1990).
[47] United States v. White,401 U.S.745,756,764(1971)(Douglas,J.,dissenting); Id. at 787(Harlan,J.,dissenting).
[48] 18 U.S.C.§2518(3)(c).
[49] 18 U.S.C.§2511(2)(c). See Mona R.Shokrai,“Double-Trouble: The Underregulation of Surreptitious Video Surveillance in Conjunction with the Use of Snitches in Domestic Government Investigations,” 13 Rich.J.L & Tech.3(2006).
[50] United States v. Nerber,222 F.3d 597(9th Cir.2000).
[51] State v. Mullens,650 S.E.2d 169(W.Va.2007).
[52] State v. Goetz,345 Mont.421,191 P.3d 489(2008); State v. Blow,157 Vt.513(1991); Commonwealth v. Blood,400 Mass.61(1987); State v. Glass,583 P.2d 872(Alaska 1978); Commonwealth v. Brion,539 Pa.256(1994).
[53] Brady v. Maryland,373 U.S.83,87(1963).
[54] United States v. Bagley,473 U.S.667(1985).
[55] Giglio v. United States,405 U.S.150,154(1972).(当“特定证人的可靠性很可能决定被告有罪或无罪”时,不披露影响可信度的证据就属于布雷迪诉马里兰州案确定的一般规则。)
[56] Giglio,405 U.S. at 151.
[57] United States v. Ruiz,536 U.S.622(2002).
[58] Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics Online,tbls.5.46.2006 & 5.17.2006,U.S.Dep't of Justice,Bureau of Justice Statistics(2006)(available at www.albany.edu/sourcebook/).
[59] D.Mass.Local Rule 116.2(B)(1)(c); Laural L.Hooper,Jennifer E.Marsh & Brian Yeh,“Treatment of Brady v. Maryland Material in United States District and State Courts' Rules,Orders,and Policies,” Federal Judicial Center(U.S.Judicial Conference,Oct.2004),11.
[60] McCray v. Illinois,386 U.S.300,311—313(1967).
[61] Roviaro v. United States,353 U.S.53,59(1957).
[62] Roviaro,353 U.S. at 60—61,628—629.
[63] Crawford v. Washington,541 U.S.36(2004); United States v. Lombardozzi,491 F.3d 61,72—75(2nd Cir.2007)(承认警官的专家证词是基于从庭外机密线人那里获得的证据)。
[64] 18 U.S.C.§3500; Ellen Podgor,“Criminal Discovery of Jencks Witness Statements: Timing Makes a Difference,” 15 Georgia St.U.L.Rev.651(1999).
[65] Ill.Comp.Stat.,ch.725,§5/115—21.
[66] Vernon's Ann.Tex.C.C.P.Art.38—141.
[67] Commission Chair John Van de Kamp Responds to Governor's Veto,Press Release,Oct.18,2007(available at www.ccfaj.org/documents/press/Press17.pdf).
[68] 参见American Bar Association,Resolution,Adopted by House of Delegates February 14,2005(敦促在全国范围内通过协助调查要求,并记录当前的州立法)(available at www.abanet.org/leadership/2005/midyear/daily/108B.doc)。
[69] United States v. Singleton,144 F.3d 1343,rev'd en banc,165 F.3d 1297(10th Cir.1999).
[70] Franks v. Delaware,438 U.S.154(1978)(警方在申请许可令时罔顾事实会使许可令无效);Napue v. Illinois,360 U.S.264(1959)(检察官明知使用伪证线人提供的证词违反正当程序);Hayes v. Brown,399 F.3d 972(9th Cir.2005)(检察官故意使用线人的伪证会违反正当程序)。
[71] Thomas Y.Davies,“Recovering the Original Fourth Amendment,” 98 Mich.L.Rev.547,651 & n.288(1999).(“汉堡法院使被告几乎不可能对搜查令宣誓书中的伪证指控提出质疑。”)Christopher Slobogin,“Testilying: Police Perjury and What to Do About It,” 67 U.Colo.L.Rev.1037,1043(1996).(“最常见的似乎是‘秘密线人’的发明……作为一种策略,允许警察掩盖在寻找合理理由时的违规行为,或者声称他们有正当理由,而实际上他们所拥有的只是一种猜测。”)
[72] Hampton v. United States,425 U.S.484(1976).(认为警方的过度介入必须是“令人震惊的”,才会使定罪无效。)
[73] United States v. Twigg,588 F.2d 373(3rd Cir.1978).
[74] United States v. Russell,411 U.S.423(1973)(defining entrapment defense and also recognizing availability of outrageous government conduct claim); see United States v. Berkovich,168 F.3d 64(2nd Cir.1999)(noting that courts rarely find government conduct to be outrageous).
[75] United States v. Simpson,813 F.2d 1462(9th Cir.1987).
[76] 参见Slagle v. United States,612 F.2d 1157(9th Cir.1980)(发现毒品线人既不是美国的雇员,也不是独立的承包商,因此认定美国政府根据联邦侵权赔偿法不承担责任)。
[77] Pleasant v. Lovell,876 F.2d 787,798(10th Cir.1989); see also Hoffa v. United States,385 U.S.293,311(1966).(“这并不是说,一个秘密的政府线人比任何其他政府特工在任何程度上都更不受宪法的相关规定约束。”)
[78] Town of Castle Rock v. Gonzalez,545 U.S.748(2005).(找不到对未能执行家庭暴力限制令的警察采取行动的因由)De Shaney v. Winnebago County Dep't of Soc.Servs.,489 U.S.189(1989)(找不到任何最低程度的治安或安全保证的宪法保障);see also Linda R.S.v.Richard D.,410 U.S.614,619(1973)(一个母亲没有资格抱怨国家未能就父亲没有支付子女的抚养费提起诉讼,因为起诉将导致监禁,但不一定是支付抚养费,并指出“一个普通公民对起诉或不起诉另一个人缺乏司法上可被承认的利益”。)
[79] Ostera v. United States,769 F.2d 716(11th Cir.1985); Luizzo v. United States,508 F.Supp.923(E.D.Mich.1981).
[80] Buckley v. Fitzsimmons,509 U.S.259(1993)(defining qualified immunity).
[81] Alexander v. DeAngelo,329 F.3d 912(7th Cir.2003).(根据《美国法典》第42编1983节,当警察强迫线人与嫌疑人口交以换取免于起诉时,该线人有权根据宪法的规定获得保护。)
[82] Id. at 918. See also Susan S.Kuo,“Official Indiscretions: Considering Sex Bargains with Government Informants,” 38 U.C.Davis L.Rev.1643(2005).
[83] Shuler v. United States,531 F.3d 930(D.C.Cir.2008).
[84] Imbler v. Pachtman,424 U.S.409(1976).
[85] Burns v. Reed,500 U.S.478,493—495(1991).第九巡回法院曾将裁定,被错误定罪的被告可以起诉监督地区检察官维持不充分的信息处理政策,因为这些政策没有披露检察官办公室使用不可靠线人的情况,尽管最高法院推翻了这一点。Goldstein v. City of Long Beach,481 F.3d 1170(9th Cir.2007),rev'd by Van de Kamp v. Goldstein,129 S.Ct.855(2009).
[86] See generally Cyrille Fijnaut & Gary T.Marx,eds.,Police Surveillance in Comparative Perspective(The Hague: Kluwer Law International,1995),269—289.
[87] Jacqueline E.Ross,“Impediments to Transnational Cooperation in Undercover Policing: A Comparative Study of the United States and Italy,” 52 Am.J.Comp.L.569,571(2004).
[88] Report of the Kaufman Commission on Proceedings Involving Guy Paul Morin(Ontario: 1997),14,599—636(available at www.attorneygeneral.jus.gov.on.ca/english/about/pubs/morin/).
[89] Steven Skurka,“A Canadian Perspective on the Role of Cooperators and Informants,” 23 Cardozo L.Rev.759,764(2002).
[90] See M.Maguire & T.John,“Covert and Deceptive Policing in England and Wales: Issues in Regulation and Practice,” 4 Euro.J.Crime,Crim.L.& Crim.Just.316,329—331(1996); John Steele,“Police Cut Army of Informers to Get ‘Value for Money,’” The Telegraph,Dec.25,2001.
[91] Ethan A.Nadelmann,“The DEA in Europe,” in Fijnaut & Marx,Police Surveillance in Comparative Perspective,at 270—271,280.
[92] Maarten van Traa,“The Findings of the Parliamentary Inquiry Viewed from an International Perspective,” in Monica den Boer,ed.,Undercover Policing and Accountability from an International Perspective(European Institute of Public Administration,1997),15—24; Jacqueline E.Ross,“Tradeoffs in Undercover Investigations: A Comparative Perspective,” 69 U.Chi.L.Rev.1501,1507—1508,1511(2002).
[93] Peter Klerks,“Covert Policing in the Netherlands,” in Fijnaut & Marx,Police Surveillance in Comparative Perspective,119.
[94] Ross,“Impediments to Transnational Cooperation,” at 574,587—588.
[95] Jacqueline E.Ross,“The Place of Covert Surveillance in Democratic Societies: A Comparative Study of the United States and Germany,” 55 Am.J.of Comparative Law 493,494,505,508(2007); see also Peter J.P.Tak,“Deals with Criminals: Supergrasses,Crown Witnesses,and Pentiti,” 5 Euro.J.Crim,Crim.L.& Crim.Justice 2,10,12—18(1997).
[96] Louise Shelley,“Soviet Undercover Work,” in Fijnaut & Marx, Police Surveillance in Comparative Perspective,155—156,161.
[97] Ethan A.Nadelmann,“The DEA in Europe,” in Fijnaut & Marx, Police Surveillance in Comparative Perspective,269—289.
[98] Ross,“Impediments to Transnational Cooperation,” at 569,602.
[99] Gary T.Marx,Undercover: Police Surveillance in America(Berkeley: University of California Press,1988),50.
[100] 这一章得益于凯瑟琳·弗雷·巴尔特的专业知识和编辑协助。