第2章 语 音
2.1 复习笔记
本章要点:
1．Speech Organs 发音器官
2．Distinction, Classification and the Criteria of Description between Constants and Vowels
辅音和元音的区别、分类及描写规则
3．Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcriptions
协同发音和语音转写
4．Phonemes and Allophones
音位和音位变体
5．Phonological Processes, Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features
音系过程、音系规则和区别特征
6．Syllable Structure, Stress and Intonation
音节结构、重音和语调
常考考点：
1．语音学
语音学的定义；音姿的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义、发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类、基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记，国际音标；严式与宽式标音法。
2．音系学
音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的联系和区别；音素、音位、音位变体、最小对立体、自由变体的定义；音位理论；自由变异；音位的对立分布与互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音(词重音、句子重音)；音高和语调。
本章内容索引
I. The Definition of Phonetics and Phonology
1．Phonetics
2．Three Major Research Fields of Phonetics
3．Phonology
II. Speech Organs
▼1. Gestures
2．Speech organs
3．Voiceless sounds
4．Voiced sounds
5．IPA
III. Consonants and Vowels
1．Definition
2．Consonants
(1) Manner of Articulation and Place of Articulation
(2) Classification of Consonants
3．Vowel
(1) Cardinal vowels
(2) Criteria of vowel description
(3) Monophthongs, Diphthongs and Triphthongs
IV. Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcriptions
＊1. Coarticulation
＊2. Phonetic Transcription
V. Phonemes and Allophones
1．Phoneme
2．Allophones
VI. Phonological Processes and Distinctive Features
1．Phonological processes
2．Assimilation
＊3. Distinctive features
VII. Suprasegmentals
1．Suprasegmental features
2．The Syllable Structure
▼3. Sonority Scale
▼4. Stress
(1) Change of the stresses due to suffixes
(2) Stresses in compounds and phrases
5．Intonation and Tone
I. The Definition of Phonetics and Phonology (语音学和音系学的定义)
1．Phonetics (语音学)
Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.
语音学研究语音的发生、传递和感知。
2．Three Major Research Fields of Phonetics (语音学研究的三大领域)
(1) Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds.
(2) Acoustic Phonetics is the study of physical properties of speech sounds.
(3) Perceptual (Auditory) Phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.
(1) 发音语言学研究语音的发生。
(2) 声学语音学研究语音的物质特征。
(3) 感知语音学(或听觉语音学)研究语音的感知。
3．Phonology (音系学)
Phonology is the study of sound systems of languages, in another word, it studies the way in which speakers of a certain language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meanings.
音系学研究的是语言的语音系统。换句话说，音系学研究的是说话人为表达意义而系统地选择语音的方法。
II. Speech Organs (发音器官)
▼1. Gestures
Most speech sounds are made by movements of the tongue and the lips, and these movements are called gestures, as compared to gestures made by hands. The gestures of the tongue and lips are made audible so that they can be heard and recognized.
大多数的语音都是通过舌头和嘴唇的动作发出的，而这些动作被称为音姿。与手势相比较，舌头和嘴唇的动作都是可以听到的，这样它们就能被识别。
2．Speech organs (发音器官)
【考点：根据图指出发音器官名称】
Also known as Vocal Organs, are those parts of human body involved in the production of speech, including lungs, the trachea (or windpipe), the throat, the nose, and the mouth.
是人体参与语音发生的那部分，包括肺、气管、喉、鼻和口。
3．Voiceless sounds (清音)
The sounds produced without causing vibration of the vocal cords.
在发音过程中，发音时声带不振动，这样所发出的音叫做清音。
4．Voiced sounds (浊音)
The sounds produced with causing vibration of the vocal cords.
在发音过程中，发音时声带振动，这样所发出的音叫做浊音。
5．IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) (国际音标)
(1) IPA is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.
(2) Its basic principle is using a different letter for each distinguishable speech sounds.
(3) With minor modification it is now still used by phoneticians and linguists.
(1) 国际音标是一个标准的、被国际上广泛接受的语音描述系统。
(2) 它的基本原则是用不同的字母符号来表示不同的发音。
(3) 经过几次修正，目前国际音标仍然被语音学家和语言学家广泛使用。
III. Consonants and Vowels辅音和元音
1．Definition定义
(1) Consonants are sounds produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.
(2) Vowels are sounds produced without obstruction, so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.
(1) 发音时，声道的某些部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全被阻塞，由此产生的音叫做辅音。
(2) 发音时，声道不受任何压缩或阻碍，因此不会有气流的紊乱或停滞，由此产生的音叫做元音。
2．Consonants (辅音)
(1) Manner of Articulation and Place of Articulation (发音方式和发音部位)
①Manner of Articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.
②Place of Articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of air.
①发音方式指发音器官之间的关系，以及气流经过声道的某些部位时的方式。
②发音部位指声道的哪些部位发生气流摩擦、狭窄化或阻碍。
(2) Classification of Consonants (辅音的分类)
【考点：描述给定辅音&根据描述指出辅音名称】
①In terms of manners of articulation, consonants can be grouped into stops, nasals, fricatives, approximants, laterals and affricates.
stops: [p, b, t, ,d, k, g]
nasals: [m, n, ŋ]
fricatives: [f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h]
approximants: [w, ɹ, j]
lateral: [l]
affricates: [ts, dz, tr, dr]
按发音方式分类，辅音可分为爆破音、鼻音、擦音、近音、边音、颤音、触音和闪音以及塞擦音。
爆破音: [p, b, t, ,d, k, g]
鼻音: [m, n, ŋ]
擦音: [f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h]
近音: [w, ɹ, j]
边音: [l]
颤音: [ts, dz, tr, dr]
②In terms of place of articulation, the consonants can be grouped into bilabials, labiodentals, dentals, alveolars, postalveolars, retroflex, palatals, velars, uvulars, pharyngeals, and glottal.
bilabials: [p, b, m]
labiodentals :[f, v]
dentals: [θ, ð]
alveolars: [t, d, n, s, z, ɹ, l ]
postalveolars: [ʃ, ʒ]
palatal: [j]
velars: [k, g, ŋ]
glottal: [h]
按发音部位分类，辅音可分为双唇音、唇齿音、齿音、齿龈音、齿龈后音、卷舌音、硬腭音、软腭音、小舌音、咽音和声门音。
双唇音: [p, b, m]
唇齿音:[f, v]
齿音: [θ, ð]
齿龈音: [t, d, n, s, z, ɹ, l ]
齿音后音: [ʃ, ʒ]
硬腭音: [j]
软腭音: [k, g, ŋ]
声门音: [h]
3．Vowel (元音)
【考点：描述给定元音&根据描述指出元音名称】
(1) Cardinal vowels (基本元音)
The cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.
基本元音是指一系列约定俗成的、固定不变的元音特质，目的是为语言中实际存在的元音描述提供一个参照框架。
(2) Criteria of vowel description (元音的划分标准)
The height of tongue raising (high, mid, low)
The position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back)
The length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short)
lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded)
舌头抬起的高度——高、中、低
舌头最高部分的高度——前、中、后
元音的长度或紧度
唇的圆展度——圆唇、非圆唇
(3) Monophthongs, Diphthongs and Triphthongs (单元音，双元音，三元音)
Monophthong: They are those pure vowels that have an unchanging quality, either from the number or the constant quality.
Diphthong: If a single movement from one element to a second element of the tongue is involved, the combing vowels are called diphthongs.
Triphthong: If two movements from one element to a second, then from the second to the third of the tongue are involved, the combing vowels are called triphthongs.
单元音指在数量上和性质上都恒定不变的纯元音。
如果在发音时通过舌头的一次运动，由第一个单元音滑向第二个单元音，所产生的音的组合就叫做双元音。
如果在发音时通过舌头的两次运作，由第一个单元音滑向第二个单元音，再由第二个单元音滑向第三个单元音，所产生的音的组合就叫做三元音。
IV. Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcriptions (协同发音与语音转写)
＊1. Coarticulation (协同发音)
The process of simultaneous or overlapping articulations when sounds show the influence of their neighbors, including anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.
协同发音指在实际话语过程中话语持续受邻近音影响，发生同时或重合发音的过程，分前期协同发音和后滞协同发音。
(1) Anticipatory coarticulation: When the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is called anticipatory coarticulation.
(2) Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is a preservative coarticulation, as in the case of map.
(1) 如果发音的变化是倾向于后音的特质(如lamp)，就称为前期协同发音。
(2) 如果发音显示出前面语音的影响(如map)，则称之为后滞协同发音。
【考点：判断一单词包含哪种协同发音】
＊2. Phonetic Transcription (语音转写)
(1) When we try to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation, it is called narrow transcription.
(2) When we use a set of simple symbols in our transcription, trying to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language, it is called broad transcription.
(1) 当我们用复杂的符号精确地标记语音所有可能的细小变化时，我们称之为“严式转写”。
(2) 当我们用一套简单的符号记音，试图把一个词与其他的词区别开来时，我们称之为“宽式转写”。
V. Phonemes and Allophones (音位和音位变体)
【考点：区分phone, phoneme, allophone】
1．Phoneme (音位)
Phoneme is a basic unit of phonological study, and it is an abstract collection of phonetic features which can distinguish meaning.
①Minimal Pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment in the same place in strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.
②Phone: It is a basic unit of phonetic study, and it is a minimal sound segment that human speech organ can produce.
音位是音系学研究的一个基本单位，是一组语音特征的抽象集合体，具有区别意义的作用。
①当两个词，除了出现在同一位置上的一个音外，其余的音都一样，那么这两个词就构成了一个最小的对立体。
②音素是语音学研究的一个基本单位，是人类的发音器官所能发出的最小语音片段。
2．Allophones (音位变体)
The different realizations of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments are called allophones.
①Complementary distribution: When two or more than two allophones of the same phoneme do not distinguish meaning and occur in different phonetic environments, then the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.
＊②Free variation: If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; that’s to say, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then can be seen as in free variation.
③Phonemic contrast: If the phonetically similar sounds are two distinctive phonemes, e.g. [p] and [b] in “pit” and “bit”, they are said to form a phonemic contrast.
同一个音位在不同语音环境中的实现方式被称为该音位的音位变体。
①当同一个音位的两个或两个以上的音位变体不区别意义，并且出现在不同的语音环境中，那么它们被称作处于互补分布。
②如果两个音素出现在一个相同的语音环境中，并不区别意义，即用一个音素替换另一个音素不产生一个新词，仅仅产生同一个词的不同读音，那么这两个音素就可被视为自由变体。
③如果最小对立体中的两个音位出现在同一位置并且能够区别意义，例如[pit]和[bit], 那么这两个音位就构成了音位对立。
VI. Phonological Processes and Distinctive Features (音系过程和区别特征)
1．Phonological processes (音系过程)
【考点：用公式法描述一音系过程】
Phonological processes are the processes in which target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or context, which include (1) a set of sounds to undergo the process, (2) a set of sounds produced by the process and (3) a set of situations in which the process applies.
音系过程是“目标”或“受影响的音段”在特定环境中(语境中)发生结构上的变化的过程。任何音系过程包括：(1) 一套会产生音系过程的语音；(2) 一套经历了音系过程的语音；(3) 音系过程得以发生的条件。
2．Assimilation (同化)
The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, which includes nasalization, dentalization and velarization.
It includes progressive assimilation and regressive assimilation.
Progressive assimilation refers to the process in which a following sound is influenced by a preceding sound, making the two sounds similar.
Regressive assimilation refers to the process, in which a preceding sound is influenced by a following sound, making the two sounds similar.
同化指一个音具有了邻近音的一部分或者全部特征的这一过程，包括鼻化、齿化、鄂化。
同化主要包括顺同化和逆同化。
顺同化是指在这个过程里前面的相邻音影响了其后音素的发音，使两者相似。
逆同化是指这样一种过程，在这个过程中后面的相邻音影响了其前面音素的发音，使两者相似。
＊3. Distinctive features (区别性特征)
They are those features which are phonologically relevant properties and can distinguish meaning, for example, plosiveness, bilabiality, and voicelessness in English phonology.
区别性特征是指和音系有关的，即能够区别意义的语音特征，如英语音系中的爆破、双唇、清音等特征。
VII. Suprasegmentals (超音段特征)
1．Suprasegmental features (超音段特征)
The features that occur above the level of the segments and can distinguish meanings are called suprasegmental features, which include syllable, stress, intonation and tone.
指的是大于切分层面上的，能够区别意义的特征，其主要包括音节、重音、声调和语调。
2．The Syllable Structure (音节结构)
A syllable can be divided into two parts, the rhyme and the onset. As the vowel within the rhyme is the nucleus, the consonant(s) after it will be termed the coda. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda. A syllable with a coda is a closed syllable while a syllable that has no coda is called an open syllable. Take the word cracked for example. Its syllable can be shown as follows:
【考点：判断一个音节的节首、韵基和节尾】
一个音节可以分成两个部分，韵基和节首。韵基中的元音是核心，它后面的辅音用术语韵尾来表示。所有音节必须有结核，但不是所有的音节都有节首和节尾。有节尾的音节叫做“闭音节”，没有节尾的音节叫做“开音节”。
▼3. Sonority Scale（响音阶）
In English, consonant clusters in onset and coda positions disallow many consonant combinations, which is explained by the work of sonority scale. The degree of sonority of different classes of sound affects their possible positions in the syllable.
在英语中，有很多辅音组合在音节的节首和节尾部分是不允许的，这是由于响音阶的作用。语音的不同音阶会影响它们在音节中的位置。
▼4. Stress（重音）
It refers to the degree of force in producing a syllable. 重音指在音节发音时所用的力度。
(1) Change of the stresses due to suffixes（后缀对重音的影响）
Some suffixes may change the position of the stress. For example, 'chaos, cha'otic, com'municate, communi'cation, 'humid, hu'midity. But the suffix -ive does not make such a change, so we have com'municative, not communi'cative.
后缀有时也会改变单词的重音，但有的后缀例外，如后缀-ive。
(2) Stresses in compounds and phrases（复合词和词组中的重音）
Besides, alternations of stress often occur between compounds and phrases as well. A 'blackboard is used in the classroom for teachers to write on whereas a black'board is any piece of board that is black in color.
重音的改变也出现在复合词和词组中。例如单词blackboard,当重音在词首时，特指教室的黑板；而当重音在第二个音节处时，泛指颜色是黑色的板。
5．Intonation and Tone (语调和声调)
(1) Intonation (语调)
Intonation involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.
语调涉及重复出现的升降模式，每个模式都应用于一套相对一致的意义，要么以词为单位，要么以各种长度的词群为单位。
(2) Tone (声调)
Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords.
声调是指声带振动的频率不同引起的音高变化。
▼①Tone change（音调变化）
Tones in tone language are not always fixed because identical adjacent tones do produce tone changes. In Mandarin Chinese, for instance, if two syllables (Chinese characters) with the same 214 tone occur consecutively, then the rule is for the first syllable to change to the 35 tone. This phenomenon is called tone sandhi.
音调语言中的音调并不总是固定不变的，因为相同的相邻音调会产生音调变化。例如，在普通话中，如果两个音节(中文字符)有相同的214音调即第三声，那么规则就是第一个音节变为35音调即第二声。这种现象叫做变调。
▼②OCP in tone change（必异规则）
Tone sandhi leads to a general rule that also covers epenthesis in segmental phonology: Obligatory Contour Principle (OCP), which is the opposite of assimilation and applies to many cases involving phonological change due to adjacent occurrences of identical sound segments or suprasegmentals like tone and stress patterns.
变调与音段音系学中的增音都遵循一个共同的原则：必异规则。该规则与同化相反，适用于具有相同特征的相邻语音所引起的超音段特征的变化。