Text A Cultural Differences on Lexical Level
Words are the basic units of meaning. Understanding the meanings of words is, therefore, critical to the sharing of meanings conveyed in verbal communication. Lexical meaning can largely be grouped into two types: denotation and connotation. Denotation is the conceptual meaning of the word that designates or describes things, events or processes, etc. It is the primary, explicit meaning given in the definition of a word in a dictionary. The connotation refers to the emotional or stylistic associations that a word or phrase suggests in one' s mind. It is the implicit, supplementary value which is added to the purely denotative meaning of a word or phrase.
Cultural Differences in Denotative Meanings
Each culture creates certain vocabulary to describe its unique physical and social environments as well as the activities its people engage in those contexts. So the absence of certain objects, events, concepts or states in one culture will naturally result in the absence of the necessary vocabulary to refer to them. Words like“炕”, “节气”, “关系”, “太极拳”, “功夫”, “德育”, “三纲五常”, “五行”etc. can only make sense to the Chinese, and words like“privacy”,“Thanksgiving Day”, “parliament”, “motel”, “hostel”, etc. are foreign to most Chinese. The unique vocabulary can cause great trouble in translation. For the sake of clarity and accuracy, adequate explanation can be added in such cases.
In addition to total equivalence of words and absence of equivalents in denoting certain referents, cultures also overlap in the denotation of certain vocabulary. For example, the languages of the Chinese, British and Eskimos all have words that refer to the natural phenomenon“snow”, but the Chinese and English languages only have a general term for this while the Eskimos have many words for different kinds of snow. So the meaning of the word“snow”in the English or Chinese language does not coincide with the meanings expressed by the Eskimos'words, which are more specific and minute. So the overlapping of denotative meaning should not lead us to the misbelief that seemingly equivalent words refer to one and the same thing in both languages of the speaker and listener in intercultural setting. The English connotation of some words like kinship terms as“uncle”, “aunt”, “niece”, “sister”or“brother”can hardly cover the complex relations reflected in Chinese kinship terms. Without mentioning the exact reference of the terms used, these words cannot be translated into proper Chinese at all, because it is always necessary in Chinese to make a clear distinction about the relationships of the relative to the persons concerned. Whether the relative is from one's mother side or one's father's side, whether he is younger or older than one's parents or oneself, all influence the exact term a Chinese uses in addressing him.
The implication for foreign language learners and intercultural communicators is that they must learn or use the words in another language with the right denotation. Otherwise, their communication will be based on wrong references and misunderstandings will follow up.
Cultural Differences in Connotative Meanings
A typical example of this kind of distinction is the color language. The Chinese and English both have words denoting the basic colors, but the meanings associated with these color words are quite different. Take“yellow”for example. Yellow in English is usually associated with the state of being cowardly, as in“yellow-bellied”and“yellow streak”. In Chinese, however, the word“黄色”carries the meaning of being pornographic and obscene, as in“黄色书刊”, “黄色电影”. Not knowing such differences, some students translated such Chinese terms directly into English as“yellow books”and“yellow movies”, which seem bizarre or ridiculous to English speakers.
Animal words may also have different connotations in different languages. The owl is associated with wisdom in English, as in the saying“as wise as an owl”. But in Chinese, the owl is a symbol of bad luck. The proverb“夜猫子进宅，好事不来”means if the owl comes at night, misfortune will follow. The dragon is the totem of the Chinese people. The word“dragon”is in every sense a positive term in Chinese. Its common associations are“good luck and fortune”, “wisdom”, “royal and noble”, etc. There are many phrases to show Chinese love for this legendary animal: “龙凤呈祥”, “藏龙卧虎”, “龙头企业”, “龙子龙孙”, etc. The four most developed countries in Asia are called“四小龙”(Four Dragons) in Chinese but“Four Tigers”in English since English speakers attribute the powerful character to the tigers rather than the dragons. In English, the word“Dragon”refers to a dreadful creature like a crocodile or snake(Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English), and it is associated with fierceness and derogatory sense when used to describe a person. In another dictionary(COBUND), there is a sentence“if you call a woman a dragon, you mean that she is fierce and unpleasant”.
Numbers, due to their sounds or stories about them, may also have special meanings in certain cultures. 13 is most unwelcome in Western countries because of its connection with the“Last Supper”of Jesus Christ. 4 is to be avoided in China, Japan and Korea for its similar sound with the word“death”or“to die”in all the three languages spoken there. 8 is loved by many Chinese as it sounds like“发”in Cantonese, meaning“to be prosperous”or“to make a fortune”. Knowing a few of the nuances behind numbers gives you a better understanding of why many Chinese businesses flocked to the San Gabriel Valley of Southern California. The area code in that vicinity was 818 or“Prosperity guaranteed prosperity! ”
After You Read
Knowledge Focus
1. Pair Work: Discuss the following questions with your partner.
1) What are the two layers of meanings?
2) What is denotation? Give examples to illustrate it.
3) What is connotation? Give examples to illustrate it.
4) Can you give some examples of the overlapping of denotative meaning in the languages of Chinese and English?
5) Find some expressions with the same denotation but different connotations in the languages of Chinese and English.
6) Find some words with connotations in one language but without the connotation in another.
2. Solo Work: Multiple choices.
1) Many words from Chinese and English are different in both the denotative meanings and connotative meanings. Which of the following is an example for this?
A．鸽子/dove
B．猫头鹰/owl
C．龙/dragon
D．红/red
2) Denotation refers to___.
A. the figurative meaning of a word
B. the associated meaning of a word
C. the set of associations implied by a word
D. the most specific and direct meaning of a word
3)“Dumpling”is often used as the translation of the typical Chinese food“jiaozi”, but in fact it is quite misleading because of___.
A. the cultural difference in denotative meaning
B. the cultural difference in connotative meaning
C. the different intercultural settings
D. the different cultural emphases
4) Colors have both similar and different meanings in different languages. For example, yellow is the color of___in English.
A. mourning
B. fear
B. danger
D. violence
5) In Chinese there are two sets of names zumu/nainai, waizumu/waipo for the English word“grandmother”. This reflects that ___.
A. these so-called equivalents are only partly equivalent
B. Chinese emphasize more on kinships
C. terms in one language find no counterparts in the other language
D. we have to find appropriate words to express ourselves in a foreign language
Language Focus
1. Fill in the blanks with the following words or expressions you have learned in Text A.
1) The North American Indians used to make___poles.
2) The town has been___a development area.
3) She___happiness with having money.
4) That rich artistic performance is full of___.
5) The demonstration had been carefully stage-managed to___the Prime Minister's visit.
6) If you listened carefully, you would find out that her attitude was___in the answer she gave us.
7) I had remembered in___detail everything that had happened.
8) Mary is a person who calls a spade a spade. She was quite___about why she left.
9) The audience cannot help laughing at the grotesque appearance of that___actor.
10) He always tends to use more words than necessary to his___ideas.
2. Fill in the blanks with the proper form of the words in the brackets.
1) A ___(supplement) grant may be awarded at the discretion of the committee.
2) His social pretensions make him appear___(ridicule).
3) He was sentenced to be guilty of intrusion upon my___(private).
4) What if you want to compare the actual contents of an object for___(equivalent)?
5) ___(Clear)of diction is vital for a public speaker.
6) She plays with___(seem) effortless skill.
7) There is no further___(refer) to him in her diary.
8) He smiled, with the___(imply) that he did not believe me.
3. Find the appropriate prepositions or adverbs that collocate with the words in bold letters.
1) He is going to live by the coast___the sake of his health.
2) In addition___giving a general introduction to computer, the course also provides practical experience.
3) My religious beliefs do not coincide___yours.
4) Judgment should be based ___facts, not on hearsay.
5) I do not want to associate myself___them any more.
6) Can you translate the sentence___English?
7) They attribute their success___their teacher's encouragement.
8) The television station apologized for the interference, which was due___bad weather conditions.
4. Error Correction: Each of the following sentences has at least one grammatical error. Identify the errors and make corrections.
1) Understanding the meanings of words are critical to the sharing of meanings conveyed in verbal communication.
2) Denotation is the conceptual meaning of the word that designates or describes things, events or process, etc.
3) Denotation is the primary, explicit meaning giving in the definition of a word in a dictionary.
4) Each culture creates a certain vocabulary to describe its unique physical and social environments as well as the activities its people engage in those contexts.
5) The absence of certain objects, events, concepts or states in one culture will naturally result in the absence of the necessary vocabulary referred to them.
6) The unique vocabulary can cause a great trouble in translation.
7) For sake of clarity and accuracy, adequate explanation can be added in such cases.
8) The meaning of the word“snow”in the English or Chinese language do not coincide with the meanings expressed by the Eskimos' words.
9) So the overlapping of denotative meaning should not lead us to the misbelief that seeming equivalent words refer to one and the same thing in both languages of the speaker and listener in intercultural setting.
10) Whether the relative is from one's mother side and one's father's side, all influence the exact term a Chinese uses in addressing him.
11) Otherwise, their communication will base on wrong references and misunderstandings will follow up.
12) Chinese and English have both words denoting the basic colors.
13) There are many phrases show Chinese love for this legendary animal.
14) Dragon is associated with fierceness and derogatory sense when using to describe a person.
15) In the worst case, translators might find themselves in a dilemma there is almost no way out.
16) Besides physical drives, men devote themselves to wide range of pursuits, such as pleasure, profits, and religions.
Comprehensive Work
1. Pair Work
1) Observe the following paragraph and discuss the meanings of the color words in it.
Mr. Brown is a very white ( ) man. He was looking rather green ( ) the other day. He has been feeling blue ( ) lately. When I saw him, he was in a brown study ( ). I hope he will soon be in the pink ( ) again.
2) What are the similarities and differences in the meanings of the following animal words in both Chinese and English?
2. Group Work
Discuss the translation of the brand names with your group members.
3. Writing
In many cases, the typical Chinese way of writing seems to be the inverse of the approach preferences by westerners. Western writers are generally expected to state their point right at the beginning and even begin each paragraph with a topic sentence. But in Chinese writing, it is more acceptable to build up the point rather than announce it right from the start; statements of main points are delayed till later or even near the end. This difference has often been one of the causes of misunderstanding between Chinese and Westerners in communication.
Read the following article written by an American writer, Donna Pilato. Then rewrite the article in the Chinese way. When you finish, compare the two articles with each other to see what advantages and disadvantages they may have respectively.
A Housewarming Party
Moving into a new home ranks among the more exciting events in life. It is definitely time to break out the bubbly and celebrate. It can also be stressful if you are moving away from friends and family. In either case, holding a housewarming party is a good way to welcome new and old friends to your home.
If you are hosting your own party, you do not need to wait until your home is in perfect shape or until everything is unpacked. People understand that it takes a long time to get settled, and they are more curious to see what the house looks like than critical of the naked windows that do not have custom curtains hung yet.
The good news is that despite all the confusion of your move, a housewarming can be a relatively informal and simple event. Your home is the main attraction so you do not need to plan lots of activities to keep your guests amused. They will be far more interested in touring your house than in playing party games at this time. The only game that might be useful is a simple icebreaker to introduce old friends to new neighbors. In fact, housewarmings are sometimes the only way old neighbors get to see each other with the busy schedules we all live.
As is mentioned earlier, tours of your new home are the main event. Therefore, you should have a plan for handling them. If you plan to conduct the tours, you will need someone to act as host, answering the door, welcoming your guests, and making them comfortable until the next tour begins. You can assign a close friend or family member to act as tour guide for you. You can also allow guests to give self-guided tours. In that case, you might want to give your guests a floor plan of your home. Label each room with its name, purpose and any interesting details you would like to show off. If you have made extensive renovations to your home, post a“before”picture outside each room. You could also post pictures taken of the rooms while under construction. People love to see the magical transformation. This is one occasion where you should clean all of your rooms. Ignore this suggestion if your party is taking place while your boxes are still packed. Then anything goes!
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