I.Understanding Culture

Since culture is so important as we can see from the above case,then what is culture and how to understand it?

1.Culture Metaphors

(1)Culture iceberg(see Figure 1-1).Many scholars like to use iceberg to describe culture.Just as an iceberg has a visible section above the water,and a larger,invisible section below the water,culture also has some aspects that are observable and others that can not be directly observed.For example,a person’s hair style may reflect a person’s age.However,things like values can not be seen directly in life.

(2)Culture onion.Another metaphor which is often used for culture is that culture is like an onion:a system that can be peeled,layer by layer.Dutch management scholar Fons Trompenaars describes culture with three layers(see Figure 1-2):

①The outer layer:the explicit culture(explicit products),which is the observable reality of the language,food,buildings,houses,monuments,agriculture,shrines,markets,fashions and art,which are the symbols of a deeper level of culture.

②The middle layer:norms and values,reflected by the explicit culture.

③The core:assumptions about existence—which disappear from our consciousness and become part of our system of absolute assumptions since they are the solutions to problems people encounter in the process of striving for survival.From the fundamental relationship with the nature,mankind takes the core meaning of life.

Other scholars divide culture into four layers of an onion as follows(see Figure 1-3):

①Symbols refer to words,gestures,pictures,or objects that carry a particular meaning.This layer also represents the feature of culture—being symbolic.For example,a red flag with five stars in China.

②Heroes are persons.They may live in the past or at present,and they may exist in real or fictitious world.However,there is one thing in common for heroes,that is,they possess characteristics that are highly praised in a culture,and thus deemed as models for behavior.

③Rituals are a set of actions or activities.People perform rituals for the purpose of religions or traditions.Marriages and funerals are all examples of rituals.Broadly speaking,rituals also embrace daily activities,like ways of greeting.

④Values make the core of a culture.Values are one’s assumptions or judges about what is valuable or important in life or society.People have their own standards to judge what is good or evil,what is right or wrong,or what is natural or unnatural.Values can also be related to the norms of a culture.For instance,people normally wear dark clothes and appear solemn at a funeral,for they reflect the values of respect and support.

Symbols,heroes,and rituals are the tangible or visual aspects of the practices of a culture.The true cultural meaning of the practices is intangible.This is revealed only when the practices are interpreted by the insiders.

(3)Culture is like the water fish swim in(see Figure 1-4).It is a reality that is taken for granted,rarely examined.It is in the air we breathe and as necessary to our understanding of who we are as air is to our physical life.Culture is the property of a community of people,not simply a characteristic of individuals.Societies are programmed by culture and that programming comes from similar life experiences and similar interpretations of what those experiences mean.Culture tells us from early childhood what matters,what to prefer,what to avoid,and what to do.Culture also tells us what ought to be.It gives us assumptions about the ideal beyond what individuals may experience.It helps us in setting priorities.

2.Definition of Culture

It is really difficult to define culture because it is a large and inclusive concept.From among hundreds of definitions of culture,here we follow the definition of Iris Varner and Linda Beamer’s:

Culture is the coherent,learned,shared view of a group of people about life’s concerns that ranks what is important,furnishes attitudes about what things are appropriate,and dictates behavior.

This definition covers three characteristics of culture and outlines three things that culture does.

(1)Culture is coherent.Each culture,past or present,is coherent and complete within itself－an entire view of the universe.The pioneer researcher into the study of cultures,Edward Tylor,said in1871 that culture is the outward expression of a unifying and consistent vision brought by a particular community to its confrontation with such core issues as the origins of the cosmos,the harsh unpredictability of the natural environment,the nature of society and humankind’s place in the order of things.

That different groups of human beings at different times in history could develop different visions is both a cause for wonder,and as we shall see,a cause of misunderstanding.The incredible richness of the variety of cultures fascinates historians,anthropologists,travelers,and nearly everybody.

Regardless of how peculiar a fragment of a culture seems,when it is placed within the whole tapestry of the culture,it makes sense.For example,if people went to Mexico in the last week of October,they might see images of skeletons,skulls and graves in every store window and every house.El Dia de Los Muertos,the Day of the Dead,is a fiesta with deep meaning for Mexican families.It emphasizes family ties that reach beyond the grave,as departed family members are remembered and consciously brought to join the living family members through a celebration.(In fact,the Chinese traditionally hold a celebration with a similar objective,called Qing Ming,on the fourth or fifth day of the fourth month)If the Chinese understood why the Mexicans display skulls and skeletons everywhere,they could respect the Mexicans’ attitudes toward death symbols.But if all they have is the culture fragment－a bit of behavior－they will probably regard it as unnatural and odious.

The completeness of cultures also means members looking out from their own seamless view of the universe probably do not see anything lacking in their “unifying and consistent vision” .Why do I need to know another culture? How can I see the possibility of something existing where I have always seen nothing? How can I know what I don’t know? The response to these questions first recognizes that culture determines business practices.You need to understand the cultural values you transmit when you interact with someone from another culture,as well as the other person’s cultural values.You also need to recognize the likelihood that there will be gaps in comprehension－holes instead of connections－in your interaction.

If you know what people value and understand their attitudes,you won’t unintentionally do something that offends and diminishes your chances for business success.An author speaking about the need for businesspeople to know about another’s viewpoint says,“relatively few people understand that mastering appropriate behavior takes precedence over mastering the language.”

(2)Culture is learned.Culture is not something we are born with,but rather it is learned.This is not to say people can talk objectively about their own culture.Much of what is learned about one’s own culture is stored in mental categories that are recalled only when they are challenged by something different.We all have to be taught our culture.The process begins immediately after birth－even earlier,according to some.

If culture is learned,then it is also learnable.That means nobody has to remain for a lifetime locked inside only one culture.If you want to understand other cultures,you can learn them－not just learn about them,but actually get inside them and act according to what is expected in them.Many people have learned more than one culture and move comfortably within them.When circumstances dictate,they make the transition from one culture to another easily.Businesses don’t have to accept failure in another culture simply because no representative of the organization grew up in that culture.

(3)Culture is the view of a group of people.A culture is shared by a society.Members of the society agree about the meanings of things and about thewhy.Along with everyone from whom they have learned their culture － older family members,teachers,spiritual leaders,peers,and representatives of legal,political,and educational institution－they have interpreted life experiences in ways that validate their own culture’s views.Therefore,since they have little doubt about that validity,they all share the view that their interpretations are correct.

Members of a society probably agree without having to say so that something is necessary and important.Groups are motivated by common views,and these views are a dynamic force in enabling groups to achieve societal goals－protecting economic resources from unscrupulous outsiders.

For example,people in a given culture share symbols of that culture.The most obvious set of symbols is language.Cultures also share visual symbols.Company logos,icons,religious images,and national flags are examples of visual symbols.

A story is told of the Sultan of Brunei,one of the world’s wealthiest men,who was shoppingin a department store in Manhattan.When he made a purchase,he was asked for identification.However,he carried no identification.“I’m the Sultan of Brunei,” he stated.The salespersoninsisted he needed to show identification.A quick-thinking aide put his hand in his pocket immediately,and pulled out a bill in the currency of Brunei.All the money in Brunei has theSultan’s picture on it.

Now we’ll look at what culture does.

(1)Culture ranks what is important.What is of paramount importance to one group may be virtually meaningless to another.For instance,consider the amassing of wealth.In one Pacific Island culture,the Gururumba of New Guinea,a rich man is required to expend all his carefully amassed fortune－in this case,pigs－in the lavish entertainment of the members of his society.To be able to entertain this way is the real meaning of wealth because it means the giver is owed and therefore has great prestige.But explain that to a businessperson in the United States or Italy who has spent his or her life amassing wealth! Usually in these cultures resources are to be husbanded and increased,not depleted in one big blow-out.To be sure,business people in these cultures often make generous charitable and philanthropic donations,but their cultures teach them to treat wealth with care and make it grow.Cultures rank what is important.In other words,cultures teach values or priorities.

(2)Culture furnishes attitudes.An attitude is learned,and it is a tendency to respond the same way to the same object or situation or idea.Attitudes are feelings about things,based on values.Attitudes can change,although change can be difficult.You can have an attitude toward eating raw fish,for example,that is positive and is based on the belief that expert preparation of sushi and sashimi by Japanese chefs results in culinary delicacies.Or you may have an attitude that is negative,based on the belief that raw fish can contain parasites that cause unpleasant consequences in the human digestive system.You can even hold both attitudes at the same time.If you do,then probably you value both fine eating experiences and physical health.

Attitudes are based on values.Belief systems or religions are powerful sources of values and attitudes in cultures.Attitudes vary according to how important something is reckoned to be(value).In Mexican culture,a death of an aunt is an event that business associates are expected to view as significant to the family members.A boss is expected to have an understanding attitude toward an employee who is not able to get a report done by a deadline because of the funeral and family needs.In Britain,the attitude toward a business associate’s loss of an aunt is that this is a private affair,regrettable and perhaps very sad,but something that should not affect work to a great extent.In fact,for a businessperson,handling the situation well means keeping it from having an impact on work.Reports should come in on time if possible.

(3)Culture dictates how to behave.To continue the example of the previous discussion,a brief expression of sympathy by one businessperson to a bereaved work associate at their next meeting is appropriate British behavior.If the association is longstanding,perhaps a card is sent.In Mexico,on the other hand,much more than an expression of sympathy is appropriate behavior.Business associates may attend the funeral,send flowers,offer services such as transporting family members,and visit the family home to show respect.

Behavior comes directly from the attitudes about how significant something is－how it is valued.Values drive actions.Business is a composite of actions.So we’re back at the point made earlier:Cultural priorities motivate business behavior.

In business,cultural differences usually make themselves known first by behavior,which is related to attitudes and which springs from priorities(values)in the culture.

Take the case of an overdue report in the following scenario.A Japanese employee in Tokyo whose report is not ready by the deadline goes to his superior and explains that problems at home with his wife have driven him to drinking more than he should and going home very late after the employees’ evenings out.The result is a raging hangover that makes him unable to concentrate on writing the report.For the Japanese worker,neither the excessive drinking nor the domestic problem is a source of shame,and his expectation is that the superior’s attitude will be acceptance and a paternalistic concern for the employee’s plight.The superior’s behavior is probably to counsel the employee and to inquire into the domestic situation in subsequent weeks.

When this scenario is presented to business people in the United States,they typically say that an employee who explained that he had failed to complete a report because of a hangover from excessive drinking(whether or not it was to escape domestic problems)would probably incur double condemnation,at least in the mind of the superior.He would be criticized for drinking too much and also for not completing the report on time.Generally speaking,in the United States the superior’s behavior would be to tell the employee to get hold of himself and get some help or else expect the unpleasant consequences that follow from failure to perform one’s work.The employee in the United States may be no less debilitated by a hangover than his Japanese counterpart,but he will offer some other reasons for not being able to get the report done:He may call in saying he’s ill.

Behaviors by the employee and the superior in Japan and the United States are different;attitudes about the role of the superior are different;attitudes by the superiors toward the employees’situation are different.All these differences can be traced to the root difference:The cultural priority placed on submitting a report on time is different.In Japan,the passed deadline may not be as significant as the maintenance of the relationship between employee and superior,and that relationship is a kind of paternalism relationship.In the United States,an employee’s performing work on schedule is significant as an indicator that the employee is responsible,shares the organization’s goals for achievement,and puts the organization’s goals for performance above personal matters.Of course,individuals and individual organizations will not all share these generalized characteristics,either in Japan or in the United States.But when this scenario is presented to Japanese and American groups,they respond with these generalizations.